Note: Intro -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Role of Nano-photocatalysis in Heavy Metal Detoxification -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Heavy Metals and Their Toxicological Effects -- 1.2.1 Cadmium -- 1.2.2 Chromium -- 1.2.3 Copper -- 1.2.4 Lead -- 1.2.5 Mercury -- 1.2.6 Nickel -- 1.2.7 Zinc -- 1.3 Overview of Photocatalysis -- 1.4 Mechanism of Photocatalysis -- 1.5 Types of Photocatalysis -- 1.5.1 Homogeneous Photocatalysis -- 1.5.2 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis -- 1.6 Overview and Mechanism of Nano-photocatalysis -- 1.7 Photocatalytic Nanoparticle Synthesis -- 1.7.1 Organic Synthesis -- 1.7.1.1 Plant Extracts Aqueous Solutions -- 1.7.1.2 Microorganisms -- 1.7.2 Chemical Synthesis -- 1.7.2.1 Sol-Gel Method -- 1.7.2.2 Hydrothermal Method -- 1.7.2.3 Polyol Synthesis -- 1.7.2.4 Precipitation Method -- 1.7.3 Physical Synthesis -- 1.7.3.1 Ball Milling -- 1.7.3.2 Melt Mixing -- 1.7.3.3 Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) -- 1.7.3.4 Laser Ablation -- 1.7.3.5 Sputter Deposition -- 1.8 Mode of Operation on Nano-photocatalysis -- 1.9 Parameters Affecting the Photocatalytic Efficiency -- 1.9.1 Effect of pH of the Reaction Solution -- 1.9.2 Effect of Photocatalyst Concentration -- 1.9.3 Effect of Substrate Adsorption -- 1.9.4 Effect of Dissolved Oxygen -- 1.10 Application -- 1.10.1 Chromium -- 1.10.1.1 pH -- 1.10.1.2 Light Intensity -- 1.10.1.3 Photocatalyst Dosage -- 1.10.1.4 Presence of Organic Compounds -- 1.10.2 Mercury -- 1.10.3 Arsenic -- 1.10.4 Uranium -- 1.11 Disadvantages of Photocatalysis -- 1.12 Photocatalyst Modifications -- 1.12.1 Dye Sensitization -- 1.12.2 Ion Doping -- 1.12.3 Composite Semiconductor -- 1.13 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2: Solar Photocatalysis Applications to Antibiotic Degradation in Aquatic Systems -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Solar Photocatalysis Process. , 2.3 Solar Photocatalysis Treatment for Antibiotic Degradation -- 2.3.1 Trimethoprim -- 2.3.2 Sulfamethoxazole -- 2.3.3 Erythromycin -- 2.3.4 Ciprofloxacin -- 2.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3: Biomass-Based Photocatalysts for Environmental Applications -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Background of Biomass-Derived Carbon -- 3.2.1 Biochar -- 3.2.2 Activated Carbon (AC) -- 3.3 Synthesis Methods of Biomass-Derived Carbon -- 3.3.1 Pyrolysis -- 3.3.2 Hydrothermal Carbonization -- 3.3.3 Physical and Chemical Activation -- 3.4 Photocatalysts and Photocatalysis Reactions -- 3.5 Functionalized AC and Applications -- 3.5.1 Types of Functionalized AC -- 3.5.2 Functionalized AC Photocatalysts and Its Application -- 3.6 Future Challenges and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4: Application of Bismuth-Based Photocatalysts in Environmental Protection -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Photocatalytic Oxidation of Pharmaceuticals in Water -- 4.2.1 Tetracycline -- 4.2.2 Ciprofloxacin and Other Antibiotics -- 4.2.3 Carbamazepine -- 4.2.4 Ibuprofen and Diclofenac -- 4.2.5 Other Pharmaceuticals -- 4.3 Photocatalytic Oxidation of Industrial Micropollutants -- 4.3.1 Bisphenol A -- 4.3.2 Oxidation of Other Industrial Pollutants -- 4.4 Oxidation of the Indoor Air Pollutant NOx -- 4.5 Photocatalytic Reduction of Pollutants in Water and Air -- 4.5.1 Reduction of Cr(VI) in Water -- 4.5.2 Reduction of CO2 in Air -- 4.6 Water Splitting -- 4.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5: Phosphors-Based Photocatalysts for Wastewater Treatment -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Phosphor Materials: A Historical Background -- 5.3 Inorganic Phosphors in Photocatalysis -- 5.3.1 Types of Inorganic Phosphor Materials -- 5.3.2 Down-Conversion Phosphors in Photocatalysis -- 5.3.3 Up-Conversion Phosphors in Photocatalysis -- 5.3.4 Long-Persistent Phosphors in Photocatalysis. , 5.4 Organic Up-Conversion Phosphors in Photocatalysis -- References -- Chapter 6: Nanocarbons-Supported and Polymers-Supported Titanium Dioxide Nanostructures as Efficient Photocatalysts for Remedi... -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Heterogeneous Semiconductor Photocatalysis -- 6.1.2 Potential TiO2-Based Photocatalysts -- 6.1.3 Limitations of the Fine Powder Form of TiO2-Based Photocatalysts -- 6.1.3.1 Comparison of Synthesis Methods -- 6.1.3.2 Improvements in TiO2 Performance by Structural Change, Doping, and Hybridization -- 6.2 TiO2 Photocatalysts with Polymer-Based Hybrid Photocatalysts for Wastewater Treatment -- 6.2.1 Need for Immobilization of TiO2-Based Photocatalysts -- 6.2.1.1 Features of a Stable Substrate, and Available Substrates -- 6.2.1.2 Comparison of Polymeric Supports for Wastewater Treatment -- 6.3 TiO2 Photocatalysts Supported with Nanocarbons for Wastewater Treatment -- 6.3.1 TiO2-Functionalized Nanocarbon-Based Photocatalysts -- 6.3.1.1 Potential Photocatalytic Improvements with Carbon Nanostructures for Wastewater Treatment -- 6.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook -- References -- Chapter 7: Investigation in Sono-photocatalysis Process Using Doped Catalyst and Ferrite Nanoparticles for Wastewater Treatment -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Dependency of Catalytic Activity -- 7.2.1 Size-Dependent Catalytic Activity -- 7.2.2 Shape-Dependent Catalytic Effect -- 7.2.3 Interparticle Distance-Dependent Catalytic Effect -- 7.2.4 Support Interaction and Charge Transfer-Dependent Reactivity -- 7.3 Type of Nanoparticles -- 7.3.1 Non-metallic Nanoparticles -- 7.3.2 Metallic Nanoparticles -- 7.3.3 Semiconductor Nanoparticles -- 7.3.4 Ceramic Nanoparticles -- 7.3.5 Polymer Nanoparticles -- 7.3.6 Lipid-Based Nanoparticles -- 7.4 Types of Nanoparticles Based on Structure -- 7.5 Synthesis and Applications -- 7.5.1 Discussions -- 7.6 Synergetic Effect. , 7.7 Conclusion and Overview -- References -- Chapter 8: Magnetic-Based Photocatalyst for Antibacterial Application and Catalytic Performance -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Magnetic-Based Photocatalysts in Inactivation of the Microorganism -- 8.3 Factors Affecting the Photocatalytic Bacterial Inactivation -- 8.3.1 Effect of Magnetic-Based Photocatalyst Concentration and Light Intensity -- 8.3.2 Nature of Microorganism -- 8.3.3 Solution pH of Magnetic-Based Photocatalyst Suspension -- 8.3.4 Initial Bacterial Concentration -- 8.3.5 Physiological State of Bacteria -- 8.4 Proposed Mechanism for Bacteria Disinfection by the Magnetic-Based Photocatalyst -- 8.5 Using Magnetic-Based Catalyst in Photocatalytic Abatement of Organics -- 8.6 Photocatalysis for the Simultaneous Treatment of Bacteria and Organics -- 8.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects -- References -- Chapter 9: Antimicrobial Activities of Photocatalysts for Water Disinfection -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Mechanisms of Photocatalytic Disinfection -- 9.3 Pure and Modified Photocatalysts -- 9.4 Photocatalytic Films and Biofilms -- 9.5 Photocatalytic Composites and Nanocomposites -- 9.6 Materials with Antimicrobial Activity in the Absence of Light -- 9.7 Case Study: Application of Supported Photocatalysts in Disinfection of Whey-Processing Water -- 9.8 Final Considerations -- References -- Chapter 10: Medicinal Applications of Photocatalysts -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Background -- 10.2 Antifungal Activity -- 10.3 Virucidal Activity -- 10.4 Antimicrobial Activity -- 10.5 Anticancer Activity -- 10.6 Conclusion -- References -- Index.

Note: Front Cover -- Advanced Applications of Ionic Liquids -- Copyright Page -- Dedication -- Contents -- List of contributors -- About the editors -- Preface -- 1 Catalysis and electrochemistry -- 1 Progressions in ionic liquid-based electrochemical research -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Physical properties of ionic liquids -- 1.2.1 Conductivity -- 1.2.2 Viscosity -- 1.2.3 Electrochemical potential window -- 1.3 Electrochemical properties -- 1.4 Applications of ionic liquids in electrochemistry -- 1.4.1 Electrochemical sensors -- 1.4.2 Electrodeposition -- 1.4.3 Electroredox -- 1.4.4 Electrochemical biosensors -- 1.4.5 Applications of ionic liquids in Li-ion batteries -- 1.4.6 Applications of ionic liquids for supercapacitors -- 1.4.7 Applications of ionic liquids in electropolymerization -- 1.5 Conclusion -- References -- 2 Recapitulation on the separation and purification of biomolecules using ionic liquid-based aqueous biphasic systems -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Applications of ionic liquids-based aqueous biphasic system in separation and purification of biomolecules -- 2.2.1 Amino acids -- 2.2.2 Proteins -- 2.2.3 Enzymes -- 2.2.4 Nucleic acids -- 2.3 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- Nomenclature -- Abbreviations -- Ionic Liquids and Good Buffers -- Proteins -- Enzymes -- Salts -- Acid -- References -- 3 Current trends and applications of ionic liquids in electrochemical devices -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.1.1 History of ionic liquids in electrochemical devices -- 3.2 Ionic liquids in energy storage devices and conversion materials -- 3.3 Ionic liquid in energy sustainability and CO2 sequestration -- 3.4 Ionic liquids as a novel electrolyte medium for advanced electrochemical devices -- 3.5 Ionic liquids' electrochemical sensing properties -- 3.6 Applications of room-temperature ionic liquids. , 3.6.1 Electrochemical applications of room-temperature ionic liquids -- 3.6.2 Room-temperature ionic liquid as a nonfaradaic biosensing component -- 3.6.3 Room-temperature ionic liquids in electrochemical gas sensoring -- 3.7 Ammonium, pyrrolidinium, phosphonium, and sulfonium-based ionic liquids and electrochemical properties -- 3.8 Current and future prospects -- 3.8.1 Ionic liquids as electrolytes -- 3.8.2 Ionic liquids as lubricants and hydraulic fluids -- 3.8.3 Ionic liquids as chemical production processes -- 3.8.4 Ionic liquids as hydrogen storage -- 3.9 Conclusions -- References -- 4 Green chemistry of ionic liquids in surface electrochemistry -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.1.1 Important characteristics of electrochemical reactions -- 4.1.1.1 Electrochemical current and potential -- 4.1.1.2 Electrochemical interfaces -- 4.1.1.3 Models of electrochemical electron transfer -- 4.1.2 Electrochemistry at the molecular scale -- 4.1.2.1 Surface structure -- 4.1.2.2 Bonding of ions -- 4.1.2.3 Bonding of water -- 4.1.2.4 Experimental aspects of current/voltage properties -- 4.1.3 Ionic liquids properties pertinent to surface electrochemistry -- 4.2 Role of ionic liquids in surface electrochemistry -- 4.2.1 Carbon ionic liquid electrode -- 4.2.1.1 Direct electrochemistry of hemoglobin -- 4.2.1.2 Determination of various substances -- 4.2.2 Quartz crystal microbalance -- 4.2.3 Chemical warfare agent -- 4.2.4 Electrochemical oxidation -- 4.3 Conclusions -- References -- 5 An evolution in electrochemical and chemical synthesis applications in prospects of ionic liquids -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Electrochemical oxidation reactions using room-temperature ionic liquids -- 5.2.1 Oxidative self-coupling reaction -- 5.2.2 Shono oxidation of carbamates -- 5.2.3 Oxidation of alcohols -- 5.2.4 Bromination reaction. , 5.3 Electrochemical reduction reactions using room-temperature ionic liquid -- 5.3.1 Electroreductive coupling of organic halides -- 5.3.2 Pinacol coupling reaction -- 5.3.3 Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide gas -- 5.3.4 Electrocarboxylation reaction -- 5.3.5 Synthesis of aryl zinc compounds -- 5.3.6 Electrochemical reductive coupling to form 1,6-diketone -- 5.3.7 Electrochemical reduction of benzoyl chloride -- 5.3.8 Organocatalysis using electrogenerated bases -- 5.4 Electrochemical polymerization reactions using room-temperature ionic liquids -- 5.5 Electrochemical partial fluorination using room-temperature ionic liquids -- 5.5.1 Anodic fluorination of dithioacetals -- 5.5.2 Electrochemical fluorination utilizing mediators -- 5.5.3 Fluorination of methyl adamantane-1-carboxylate electrochemically -- 5.6 Other electrochemical reactions using room-temperature ionic liquids -- 5.6.1 Electrogenerated N-heterocyclic carbenes -- 5.6.1.1 Synthesis of β-lactams -- 5.6.1.2 Henry reaction -- 5.6.1.3 Benzoin condensation -- 5.6.1.4 Stetter reaction -- 5.6.1.5 Staudinger reaction -- 5.6.1.6 Preparation of γ-butyrolactones -- 5.6.1.7 Esterification reaction -- 5.6.1.8 Transesterification -- 5.6.1.9 Oxidative esterification of aromatic aldehydes -- 5.6.1.10 Preparation of N-acyloxazolidin-2-ones -- 5.6.1.11 N-Functionalisation of benzoxazolones -- 5.6.2 Functionalisation of nitroaromatic compounds -- 5.6.3 Epoxidation reaction using room-temperature ionic liquids -- 5.7 Conclusions -- Abbreviations -- References -- 6 Recent changes in the synthesis of ionic liquids based on inorganic nanocomposites and their applications -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Inorganic nanocomposite materials-an overview -- 6.1.2 Development of inorganic nanocomposite materials synthesis -- 6.1.3 Role of ionic liquid in the synthesis of inorganic nanocomposite. , 6.1.4 Application-based importance of ionic liquids in inorganic nanocomposite -- 6.2 Synthesis of inorganic nanocomposite materials using ionic liquid -- 6.2.1 Sol-gel method -- 6.2.2 Hydrothermal method -- 6.2.3 Microemulsion method -- 6.2.4 Precipitation and co-precipitation method -- 6.2.5 Rays mediated method -- 6.2.5.1 Photochemical method -- 6.2.5.2 Photocatalytic deposition -- 6.2.5.3 Sonochemical method -- 6.2.6 Electrochemical method -- 6.3 How organic-inorganic is different from inorganic nanocomposites? -- 6.4 Recent advancements and advantages of inorganic nanocomposites with ionic liquids -- 6.4.1 Storage of heat energy -- 6.4.1.1 Advantages -- 6.4.2 Electrolytic support -- 6.4.2.1 Advantages -- 6.4.3 Solvents improvement -- 6.4.3.1 Advantages -- 6.4.4 Analytics and purity -- 6.4.4.1 Advantages -- 6.4.5 Additives -- 6.4.5.1 Advantages -- 6.5 Current applications and their future perspective -- 6.5.1 Biomedical -- 6.5.2 Environmental science -- 6.5.2.1 Water treatment -- 6.5.2.2 Soil treatment -- 6.5.2.3 Air pollution treatment -- 6.5.3 Nuclear science -- 6.5.4 Food science -- 6.5.5 Energy storage and transfer -- 6.5.6 Catalysis -- 6.5.7 Lubricants -- 6.5.8 Sensors -- 6.5.9 Electrochemistry -- 6.6 Reaction mechanism of ionic liquids-based synthesized nanocomposite materials -- 6.7 Conclusions -- Abbreviations -- Author contributions -- Conflicts of interest -- References -- 7 Ionic liquids as green and efficient corrosion-protective materials for metals and alloys -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.1.1 Effect of corrosion -- 7.1.2 Causes of corrosion -- 7.1.3 Techniques of corrosion protection -- 7.1.4 Ionic liquids as green corrosion protectors -- 7.1.5 Applications of ionic liquids -- 7.1.6 Classification of ionic liquids -- 7.2 Ionic liquids as corrosion protector for metals and alloy. , 7.2.1 Ionic liquids as corrosion protector for iron and alloy -- 7.2.2 Ionic liquids as corrosion protector for Al -- 7.2.3 Ionic liquids as corrosion protector for Cu and Zn -- 7.3 Corrosion protection mechanism -- 7.4 Conclusions and future perspectives -- References -- 2 Separation technology -- 8 Ionic liquids as valuable assets in extraction techniques -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Ionic liquids -- 8.3 Ionic liquids for the extraction of natural products from the plants -- 8.3.1 Ultrasonic-assisted ionic liquid approach for the extraction of natural products -- 8.3.2 Microwave-assisted ionic liquid approach for the extraction of natural products -- 8.3.3 Reactive dissolution of biomass in ionic liquids for the extraction of natural products -- 8.4 Ionic liquids in extraction of pharmaceuticals from biological and environmental samples -- 8.5 Ionic liquids for the extraction of contaminants from wastewater -- 8.5.1 Extraction of toxic metal ions -- 8.5.2 Extraction of organic pollutants -- 8.6 Ionic liquids for the extraction of soil contaminants and soil organic matter -- 8.6.1 Extraction of soil contaminants -- 8.6.1.1 Extraction of soil organic pollutants -- 8.6.1.2 Extraction of soil heavy metal ions -- 8.6.2 Extractions of soil organic matter -- 8.7 Extraction of rare earth metals -- 8.8 Ionic liquids for the extraction of food contaminants -- 8.9 Applications of ionic liquids -- 8.10 Conclusion and future prospective -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 9 An involvement of ionic liquids and other small molecules as promising corrosion inhibitors in recent advancement of tech... -- 9.1 Consequences of corrosion -- 9.2 Economic effects -- 9.3 Methods to control corrosion -- 9.3.1 Material selection -- 9.3.2 Coating -- 9.3.2.1 Metallic coating -- 9.3.2.2 Organic coating -- 9.3.2.3 Inorganic coatings -- 9.4 Inhibitors -- 9.5 Anodization. , 9.6 Cathodic protection.

Note: Intro -- Preface -- Contents -- 1 Green Approach: Microbes for Removal of Dyes and Metals via Ion Binding -- Abstract -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Pollutants in the Environment -- 1.2.1 Toxic Metals -- 1.2.2 Triphenylmethane Dyes -- 1.3 Bioremediation Approaches in Removing Pollutants -- 1.3.1 Non-microbial Strategies -- 1.3.2 Microbial-Based Strategies -- 1.4 Mechanisms for Removal of Pollutant Ions -- 1.4.1 Mechanisms for Removal of Metal Ions -- 1.4.2 Mechanisms for Removal of Dyes -- 1.5 Innovations in the Removal of Pollutant Ions -- 1.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 2 Removal of Heavy Metal from Wastewater Using Ion Exchange Membranes -- Abstract -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Heavy Metal -- 2.2.1 Chromium -- 2.2.2 Nickel -- 2.2.3 Copper -- 2.2.4 Zinc -- 2.2.5 Cadmium -- 2.2.6 Mercury -- 2.2.7 Lead -- 2.3 Physical Treatment Methods -- 2.3.1 Ultrafiltration -- 2.3.2 Nanofiltration -- 2.3.3 Reverse Osmosis -- 2.3.4 Forward Osmosis -- 2.3.5 Adsorption -- 2.4 Chemical Treatment Methods -- 2.4.1 Electrodialysis Method -- 2.4.2 Fuel Cell Method -- 2.5 Remaining Challenges and Perspectives -- 2.6 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 3 Separation and Purification of Uncharged Molecules -- Abstract -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Separation and Purification of Vitamin B12 -- 3.2.1 Downstream Processing of Vitamin B12 for Measurement -- 3.3 Separation and Purification of Haemoglobin -- 3.4 Separation and Purification of Uncharged Dyes -- 3.4.1 Purification and Separation of Dyes -- 3.5 Conclusion -- References -- 4 Aluminosilicate Inorganic Polymers (Geopolymers): Emerging Ion Exchangers for Removal of Metal Ions -- Abstract -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Methodology and Calculations -- 4.2.1 Terminology: Ion Exchange or Adsorption -- 4.2.2 Evidence for Ion Exchange. , 4.2.3 Modeling of Adsorption of Metal Ions on Geopolymers -- 4.2.4 Geopolymer Preparation -- 4.2.5 Washing of the Geopolymeric Adsorbent -- 4.2.6 Comparison Between Geopolymers and Zeolites -- 4.2.7 Geopolymers as Ion Exchangers -- 4.2.7.1 Geopolymers as Ion Exchangers for Alkali Metal Ions -- 4.2.7.2 Geopolymers as Ion Exchangers for Ammonium Ion -- 4.2.7.3 Geopolymers as Ion Exchangers for Alkaline Earth Metals -- 4.2.7.4 Geopolymers as Ion Exchangers for Heavy Metals -- Metakaolin-Based Geopolymers -- Fly Ash-Based Geopolymers -- Zeolite-Based Geopolymers -- 4.2.7.5 Geopolymers as Ion Exchangers/Adsorbents for Cationic Organic Dyes -- 4.2.8 Comparison of Geopolymers with Zeolites -- 4.2.8.1 Synthesis Conditions -- 4.2.8.2 Crystallinity -- 4.2.8.3 Surface Area and Porosity -- 4.2.8.4 Cation Exchange Capacity -- 4.2.8.5 Selectivity for Metal Ions -- 4.2.8.6 Stability in Acidic Solutions -- 4.2.8.7 Thermal Stability -- 4.2.8.8 Mechanical Strength -- 4.2.8.9 Regeneration -- 4.2.9 Stabilization/Solidification/Encapsulation of Ion Exchangers in Geopolymers -- 4.3 Concluding Remarks -- References -- 5 Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis of Agglomerated Spherical Zirconium Phosphate for Removal of Cs+ and Sr2+ Ions from Aqueous System -- Abstract -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Materials and Methods -- 5.2.1 Preparation of Agglomerated Spherical Zirconium Phosphate -- 5.2.2 Characterization -- 5.2.3 Ion Exchange Properties -- 5.2.4 Elution Behaviour -- 5.2.5 Distribution Studies -- 5.3 Results and Discussion -- 5.3.1 Fourier-Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Characterization -- 5.3.2 Powder X-ray Diffraction Studies -- 5.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive (EDS) Characterization -- 5.3.4 Zeta and Surface Area Analysis -- 5.3.5 Ion Exchange Characteristics -- 5.3.6 Mechanism of Sr2+ Interaction with Zirconium Phosphate -- 5.4 Conclusion. , Acknowledgements -- References -- 6 Metal Hexacyanoferrates: Ion Insertion (or Exchange) Capabilities -- Abstract -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Ion Exchange -- 6.2.1 Ion Exchange in MHCF at Work: Potentiometric Ion Sensors -- 6.2.2 An Ion Exchange-Based Approach for the Recovery of Metal Ions: The Case of Cesium and Thallium -- 6.2.3 Electrochemically Driven Ion Exchange -- 6.2.4 Reversible Ion Insertion in Battery Systems -- 6.3 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Biosorbents and Composite Cation Exchanger for the Treatment of Heavy Metals -- Abstract -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Agro-Based Biosorbents for Heavy Metal Removal -- 7.3 Biopolymers -- 7.3.1 Functional Groups -- 7.3.2 Cellulose -- 7.3.3 Chitosan -- 7.3.4 Nanofiber Membranes and Packed-Bed Adsorbers -- 7.4 Composite Ion Exchangers -- 7.5 Conclusion and Future Outlook -- References -- 8 Rare Earth Elements-Separation Methods Yesterday and Today -- Abstract -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Rare Earth Elements -- 8.2.1 General Characteristics -- 8.2.2 The Occurrence of Rare Earth Elements -- 8.2.3 Physicochemical Properties of Rare Earth Elements -- 8.2.4 Application of Rare Earth Metals -- 8.2.5 Production and Consumption of Rare Earth Elements in the World -- 8.3 Rare Earth Element Recovery from Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries -- 8.4 Rare Earth Element Recovery from Permanent Magnets -- 8.5 Separation of High-Purity Rare Earth Elements -- 8.5.1 Separations of Rare Earth Elements of High Purity Using Cation Exchangers -- 8.5.2 Separations of Rare Earth Elements of High Purity Using Anion Exchangers -- 8.5.3 Separations of Rare Earth Elements of High Purity Using Chelating Ion Exchangers -- 8.6 Current Technologies -- 8.7 Conclusions -- References -- 9 Sequestration of Heavy Metals from Industrial Wastewater Using Composite Ion Exchangers -- Abstract -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Ion-Exchange Materials. , 9.2.1 Organic Materials -- 9.2.2 Inorganic Materials -- 9.2.3 Composite Materials -- 9.2.3.1 Hybrid Materials -- 9.2.3.2 Nanocomposite -- 9.3 Mechanism of Ion-Exchange Process -- 9.4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 10 Applications of Organic Ion Exchange Resins in Water Treatment -- Abstract -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Removal of Heavy Metals -- 10.3 Removal of Organics -- 10.3.1 Natural Organic Matter (NOM) -- 10.3.2 Disinfection by-Products (DBPs) -- 10.3.3 Surfactants -- 10.3.4 Pharmaceuticals -- 10.3.5 Dyes -- 10.3.6 Small Organic Matter -- 10.4 Desalination -- 10.5 Boron Removal -- 10.6 Removal of Anions -- 10.7 Removal of Cations -- 10.7.1 Hardness -- 10.7.2 Ammonium -- 10.8 Conclusions -- References.