Note: Intro -- Anoxia -- Table of Contents -- Introduction to Anoxia: Evidence for Eukaryotesurvival and Paleontological Strategies -- Stepping into the Book of Anoxia and Eukaryotes -- References -- List of Authors and their Addresses -- List of External Reviewers and Referees -- Acknowledgments -- Part I: General Introduction -- Anaerobic Eukaryotes -- 1. Anoxia: An Extreme Environment? -- 2. Anaerobic Multicellular Eukaryotes -- 3. Anaerobic Unicellular Eukaryotes -- 3.1. Mitochondria, Hydrogenosomes, and Mitosomes -- 3.2. Facultative Anaerobic Protists -- 3.3. Coping with Anoxia Using Endosymbiotic Phototrophs -- 4. Sensitivity to Oxygen -- 5. Sterol Synthesis -- 6. Prokaryote Symbionts -- 6.1. Methanogens -- 6.2. Ectosymbiotic Bacteria -- 6.3. Phototrophic Endosymbionts -- 7. Energy Metabolism and the Structure of Anaerobic Communities -- 8. The Origin of Anaerobic Eukaryotes -- 9. References -- Biogeochemical Reactions in Marine Sediments Underlying Anoxic Water Bodies -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Sediment Biogeochemistry in Modern Oxygenated Oceans -- 2.1. Range and Variations of Oxygen Availability in Sediments -- 3. Changes in Sedimentary Biogeochemical Reactions Under Hypoxia and Anoxia -- 3.1. Biogeochemical Processes in Naturally Occurring Oxygen Minimum Zones on Continental Margins -- 3.2. Biogeochemical Processes in Sediments Underlying Euxinic Water Bodies -- 4. Anoxia Through Time -- 4.1. Biogeochemical Processes in Sediments During Ocean Anoxic Events -- 4.2. The Initial Early Earth Anoxia and Changes During the First Rise of Oxygen -- 5. References -- Diversity of Anaerobic Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes: Breaking Long-Established Dogmas -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Novel Types of Anaerobic Metabolism in the Prokaryotic World -- 3. Anaerobic Metabolism in the Eukaryotic World: Revisited -- 4. References -- Part II: Functional Biochemistry. , The Biochemical Adaptations of Mitochondrion-Related Organelles of Parasitic and Free-Living Microbial Eukaryotes to Low Oxygen Environments -- 1. Introduction -- 1.1. Mitochondria and Mitochondrion-Related Organelles -- 2. Protein Import into Mitochondrion-Related Organelles -- 3. Organellar Substrate Exchange: The Mitochondrial Carrier Family -- 4. Iron-Sulfur Cluster Assembly -- 5. Pyruvate Metabolism -- 5.1. Malate Decarboxylation -- 6. [FeFe]-Hydrogenase -- 6.1. Evolutionary Relationships Among [FeFe]-Hydrogenases -- 7. ATP-Generation from Acetyl-CoA in Microbial Eukaryotes -- 8. Conclusions -- 10. References -- Hydrogenosomes and Mitosomes: Mitochondrial Adaptations to Life in Anaerobic Environments -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Anaerobic Protists: Diversity and Distribution of Hydrogenosomes and Related Organelles -- 3. Mitochondrial Genomes -- 4. Hydrogenosomes -- 4.1. Trichomonas -- 4.2. Trimastix pyriformis -- 4.3. Neocallimastix sp. and Piromyces E2 -- 4.4. Blastocystis sp. -- 4.5. Anaerobic Ciliates -- 4.6. Nyctotherus ovalis -- 5. Mitosomes -- 5.1 Entamoeba histolytica -- 5.2. Mastigamoeba balamuthi -- 5.3. Encephalitozoon cuniculi, Antonospora locustae, Trachipleistophora hominis -- 5.4. Cryptosporidium parvum -- 5.5. Giardia sp. -- 6. Conclusions and Discussion -- 7. References -- Adapting to Hypoxia: Lessons from Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Increased Gene Transcription -- 3. Increased mRNA Stability -- 4. Translational Regulation -- 5. Summary and Future Perspectives -- 6. References -- Part III: Managing Anoxia -- Magnetotactic Protists at the Oxic-Anoxic Transition Zones of Coastal Aquatic Environments -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Discovery of Magnetotactic Protists -- 3. Magnetotactic Protists at Salt Pond -- 3.1. Types of Magnetotactic Protists -- 3.2. Behavior of Magnetotactic Protists. , 3.3. "Magnetosomes" in Magnetotactic Protists? -- 4. Origin of Magnetite in Magnetotactic Protists -- 5. Role of Magnetotactic Protists in Iron Cycling -- 6. Future Research Directions -- 8. References -- A Novel Ciliate (Ciliophora: Hypotrichida) Isolated from Bathyal Anoxic Sediments -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Materials and Methods -- 3. Results and Discussion -- 4. Conclusion -- 5. References -- The Wood-Eating Termite Hindgut: Diverse Cellular Symbioses in a Microoxic to Anoxic Environment -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Evolution of the Termite Hindgut -- 3. The Microoxic to Anoxic Gut Environment -- 4. Diversity of Organisms in the Gut -- 4.1. Protists -- 4.2. Spirochetes -- 5. Early Cell Evolution Analogs -- 6. Recent Discoveries -- 6.1. Co-evolution -- 6.2. Whole Genome of Endosymbionts -- 7. Genetic Diversity Versus Morphological Complexity -- 8. References -- Ecological and Experimental Exposure of Insects to Anoxia Reveals Surprising Tolerance -- 1. Introduction -- 1.1. Evolution of Insects and Early Terrestrial Conditions -- 1.2. Aquatic Insects and Anoxia -- 2. Insect Respiration Patterns and Hypoxia/Hyperoxia -- 2.1. Discontinuous Gas Exchange -- 3. Insects Exposed to Hypoxic/Anoxic Conditions -- 3.1. Terrestrial Insects and Flooding -- 3.2. Immersion of Economically Important Species -- 3.3. High Altitude Hypoxia and Anoxia Associated with Freezing -- 3.4. Other Severely Hypoxic Environments -- 3.5. Use of Modified Atmospheres to Manage Insect Pests -- 3.6. Insect Response to Severe Hypoxia and Anoxia -- 4. Prospectus -- 5. References -- The Unusual Response of Encysted Embryos of the Animal Extremophile, Artemia franciscana , to Prolonged Anoxia -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Encysted Embryos of Artemia franciscana -- 3. The Structure of Encysted Embryos -- 4. The Longevity and Metabolic Status of Anoxic Embryos. , 5. The Matter of the Free-Energy Requirement for Living Systems -- 6. How Are the Proteins of Anoxic Embryos Protected? -- 6.1. Control of Proteases -- 6.2. Stress Proteins/Molecular Chaperones -- 6.2.1. Artemin -- 6.2.2. The Small Heat Shock Protein p26 -- 6.3. Late Embryogenesis Abundant (Lea) Proteins -- 6.4. Trehalose -- 7. Concluding Comments -- 9. References -- Survival of Tardigrades in Extreme Environments: A Model Animal for Astrobiology -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Anhydrobiosis in Tardigrades -- 3. Radiation Tolerance -- 4. Tolerance to Low and High Temperatures -- 5. Tolerance to Low and High Pressures -- 6. Exposure to Actual and Simulated Extraterrestrial Environments -- 7. Conclusion -- 9. References -- Long-Term Anoxia Tolerance in Flowering Plants -- 1. Prevalence of Anoxia in Flowering Plants -- 1.1. Anoxia in the Arctic -- 1.2. Anoxia and the American Cranberry -- 1.3. Natural Anoxia in Seeds -- 2. Evolution of Flooding Tolerance -- 3. Survival Strategies for Anoxia Avoidance -- 3.1. Short-Term Anoxia Tolerance -- 3.2. Long-Term Anoxia Tolerance -- 3.2.1. Foliar Tolerance of Anoxia -- 3.2.2. Adaptations for Winter Survival Under Anoxia -- 3.2.3. End Products of Glycolysis and the Accumulation of the Oxygen Debt -- 4. Post-anoxic Injury and the Dangers of Un-flooding -- 5. Anoxia Sensing in Plants -- 6. Ecological Advantages of Anoxia Tolerance -- 8. References -- Part IV: Foraminifera -- Benthic Foraminifera: Inhabitants of Low-Oxygen Environments -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Spatial Distribution: Foraminiferal Communities Living in Low-Oxygen Settings -- 2.1. Seasonally Low-Oxygen Environments -- 2.2. Permanent Low-Oxygen Environments -- 3. Foraminiferal Depth Zonation in Sediment: Oxic, Hypoxic, and Anoxic Microhabitats -- 3.1. Foraminiferal Species Living in Hypoxic and Anoxic Microhabitats -- 3.1.1. Intermediate Infauna. , 3.1.2. Deep Infauna -- 3.1.3 Infauna with Variable Microhabitat -- 3.2. Test Chemistry: Relation to Foraminiferal Microhabitat -- 4. Experimental Evidence -- 5. Survival Strategies in Low-Oxygen Environments -- 5.1. Internal Nitrate Pool and Denitrification -- 5.2. Foraminiferal Cell Ultrastructure, Including Chloroplast Sequestration -- 5.3. Bacterial Symbionts -- 6. Outlook into Future Research Directions -- 8. References -- Ecological and Biological Response of Benthic Foraminifera Under Oxygen-Depleted Conditions: Evidence from Laboratory Approaches -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Laboratory Methodologies -- 3. Survival Experiments -- 4. Orientation in the Sediment: Foraminiferal Aerotaxis? -- 5. Sediment Oxidation and the Influence of Bioturbation -- 6. Foraminiferal Metabolism Under Oxic and Anoxic Conditions -- 7. References -- The Response of Benthic Foraminifera to Low-Oxygen Conditions of the Peruvian Oxygen Minimum Zone -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Study Area -- 3. Materials and Methods -- 3.1. Sample Processing -- 3.2. Environmental Data -- 4. Species Distribution Patterns of Benthic Foraminifera in the OMZ Off Peru -- 5. Discussion -- 5.1. Species Patterns -- 5.2. A New Proxy for Estimation of Bottom Water Oxygen Concentrations -- Appendix 1: Faunal Reference List -- Appendix 2: Supplementary Data -- 7. References -- Benthic Foraminiferal Communities and Microhabitat Selection on the Continental Shelf Off Central Peru -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Material and Methods -- 3. Results -- 3.1. Oceanographic Setting and Sediment Properties -- 3.2. Benthic Foraminiferal Assemblages and Vertical Distribution -- 4. Discussion -- 4.1. Benthic Foraminiferal Assemblages and Biogeochemical Conditions -- 4.2. Vertical Distribution and Microhabitat Selection -- 4.3. Virgulinella fragilis and H 2 S Concentration -- 5. Conclusions -- 7. References. , Part V: Zones and Regions.