Anmerkung: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Acknowledgement -- Contents -- About the Editors -- Abbreviations -- 1: An Introduction to Extremes in Atmospheric Processes and Phenomena: Assessment, Impacts and Mitigation -- 1.1 General Introduction -- 1.2 Summary of Chapters -- 1.3 Conclusions -- References -- 2: Atmospheric Phenomena: Origin, Mechanism, and Impacts -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Atmospheric Phenomena and Mechanism -- 2.2.1 Hydrometeor -- 2.2.1.1 Suspended Particle -- 2.2.1.2 Precipitation -- 2.2.1.3 Spout -- 2.2.2 Lithometeor -- 2.2.2.1 Haze -- 2.2.2.2 Blowing Dust -- 2.3 Impacts of Hydrometeors and Lithometeors on Human Society -- 2.4 Conclusion -- References -- 3: Air Pollution and Its Associated Impacts on Atmosphere and Biota Health -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Air Pollutants: Types and Sources -- 3.3 Air Pollution and Its Impacts on the Atmosphere -- 3.3.1 Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming -- 3.3.2 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion -- 3.3.3 Atmospheric Deposition and Acid Rain -- 3.3.4 Suppression of Rainfall -- 3.3.5 Visibility Reduction -- 3.4 Impacts on Biota Health -- 3.4.1 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) -- 3.4.2 Oxides of Nitrogen -- 3.4.3 Ground Level Ozone -- 3.4.4 Suspended Particulate Matter -- 3.4.5 Fluorides -- 3.4.6 Peroxyacyl Nitrates -- 3.5 Impacts of Air Pollutants on Human Health -- 3.6 Conclusions -- References -- 4: South Asian Monsoon Extremes and Climate Change -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Semi-permanent Features of Monsoon -- 4.2.1 Heat Low -- 4.2.2 Monsoon Trough -- 4.2.3 Tibetan Anticyclone -- 4.2.4 Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) -- 4.2.5 Mascarene High (MH) -- 4.2.6 Somali Low-Level Jet (LLJ) -- 4.3 Phases of Monsoon -- 4.3.1 Onset of Monsoon -- 4.3.2 Monsoon Advance -- 4.3.3 Withdrawal of SW Monsoon -- 4.4 Intra-seasonal Variations/Active and Break Spells -- 4.5 Extremities in South Asian Monsoon -- 4.6 Regional Trends in Monsoon. , 4.7 ENSO, IOD and MJO Links with Monsoon -- 4.8 Climate Change and Global Warming Impacts -- 4.8.1 Remedial Measures -- 4.8.2 Impact of South Asia Monsoon on Society -- 4.9 Summary -- References -- 5: Contribution of Fog in Changing Air Quality: Extremities and Risks to Environment and Society -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Fog -- 5.3 Types of Fog -- 5.3.1 Fog Formed Through the Addition of Water Vapour -- 5.3.1.1 Steam Fog -- 5.3.1.2 Frontal Fog -- 5.3.2 Fog Formed by Cooling -- 5.3.2.1 Radiation Fog -- Advection-Radiation Fog -- High Inversion Fog -- 5.3.2.2 Advection Fog -- 5.3.2.3 Upslope Fog -- 5.3.2.4 Mixing Fog -- 5.4 World Distribution of Fog -- 5.4.1 Northern India Fog -- 5.5 Characterization of Fog -- 5.5.1 Microphysical Structure of Fog -- 5.5.2 Haze to Fog Transition -- 5.5.3 Chemical Composition of Fog -- 5.6 Factor for Fog Formation -- 5.6.1 Meteorological Condition -- 5.6.2 Role of Aerosol -- 5.7 Fog as an Extreme Event: Causes and Impacts -- 5.7.1 Fog as an Extreme Event -- 5.7.2 Causes -- 5.7.3 Impacts -- 5.7.4 Effect on Air Quality -- 5.7.4.1 Effect on Pollutant Concentration -- 5.7.4.2 Visibility -- 5.7.5 Effect on Transport System -- 5.7.5.1 Traffic Accidents -- 5.7.6 Economic Impact -- 5.7.7 Health Effect -- 5.7.7.1 Fog and Chest Infection -- 5.7.8 Wireless Communication -- 5.7.9 Impact on Vegetation -- 5.8 Conclusion -- References -- 6: Nature of Sand and Dust Storm in South Asian Region: Extremities and Environmental Impacts -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Dust Storms: a Global Phenomenon and a Transboundary Hazard -- 6.1.2 How SDS Act as Extreme Event? -- 6.2 Sand and Dust Storm Processes -- 6.3 Drivers of Sand and Dust Storm -- 6.3.1 Natural Drivers -- 6.3.2 Anthropogenic Drivers -- 6.4 State and Trends of SDS -- 6.5 Geography of Dust Storms in South Asia -- 6.5.1 India -- 6.5.2 Pakistan -- 6.5.3 Afghanistan. , 6.6 SDS Hazards and Their Impacts -- 6.6.1 Impacts on Ocean and Its Productivity -- 6.6.2 Impact of SDS on Air Quality -- 6.6.3 Human Health Impacts -- 6.6.3.1 Cardio-respiratory Diseases -- 6.6.3.2 Valley Fever -- 6.6.3.3 Eye and Skin Infections -- 6.6.4 Economic Impacts -- 6.7 Climate Change and SDS Events -- 6.7.1 Positive and Negative Forcing and SDS -- 6.7.2 Connection Between SDS and Climate Change -- 6.8 Conclusion -- References -- 7: Assessment of Heat and Cold Waves Phenomena and Impacts on Environment -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Heat Waves -- 7.2.1 Defining Heat Waves -- 7.2.2 Generation of Heat Waves -- 7.2.2.1 Atmospheric Characteristics -- 7.2.3 Climate Change and Heat Waves -- 7.2.4 Urban-Scale Aspects of Heat Waves -- 7.2.4.1 Heat Waves and Urban Heat Island Effect -- 7.2.4.2 Heat Waves and Air Quality -- 7.2.5 Impacts of Heat Waves and Mitigation Strategies -- 7.2.5.1 Human Health -- 7.2.5.2 Energy Sector and Infrastructure -- 7.2.5.3 Other Aspects -- 7.2.5.4 Mitigation Strategies -- 7.3 Cold Waves -- 7.4 Case Study of Heat Wave -- 7.5 Conclusions -- References -- 8: Intense Biomass Burning Over Northern India and Its Impact on Air Quality, Chemistry and Climate -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Major Sources of Intense Biomass Burning in Northern India -- 8.3 Extreme Biomass Burning -- 8.4 Biomass Burning-Induced Elevated Levels of Aerosols and Trace Gases -- 8.4.1 Particulate Matter (PM) -- 8.4.2 Carbonaceous Aerosols -- 8.4.3 Ozone -- 8.4.4 Ozone Precursors -- 8.5 Impacts of Intense Biomass Burning -- 8.5.1 Air Quality -- 8.5.2 Chemistry -- 8.5.3 Climate and Weather -- 8.5.3.1 Impact on Aerosol Characteristics and Radiative Forcing -- 8.5.3.2 Impact over Himalayan Region -- 8.6 Summary -- References -- 9: Rising Extreme Event of Smog in Northern India: Problems and Challenges -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 North-India´s Crowning Glory or Not?. , 9.3 Smog Events over Northern India -- 9.4 Challenges: Problems and Allied Impacts -- 9.4.1 Industrial and Vehicular Emissions -- 9.4.2 Crop Residue Burning -- 9.4.3 Natural Processes -- 9.4.4 Road Dust, Construction, and Demolition -- 9.4.5 Lack of Source Identification Studies -- 9.4.6 Inefficient Waste Management -- 9.4.7 Impacts -- 9.4.7.1 Health Impacts -- 9.4.8 Visibility Reduction -- 9.4.9 Economic Losses -- 9.4.10 Agricultural Loss -- 9.5 Conclusion -- References -- 10: Volcanic Emissions: Causes, Impacts, and Its Extremities -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Types of Volcanoes -- 10.1.1.1 On the Basis of Activity -- 10.1.1.2 On the Basis of Structure -- 10.2 Causes of Volcanic Emissions -- 10.2.1 Plate Tectonics -- 10.2.1.1 Crustal Plates -- 10.2.1.2 Plate Boundaries -- 10.3 Emissions from Volcanoes -- 10.3.1 Volcanic Material -- 10.4 Impacts of Volcanic Emissions -- 10.4.1 Radiative Forcing -- 10.4.2 Impact on Ozone -- 10.4.3 Acid Rain -- 10.4.4 Impact on Aviation -- 10.4.5 Environment and Health -- 10.4.6 Volcano and ENSO Relation -- 10.5 Impacts and Extremities -- 10.5.1 Mount Pinatubo: A Case Study -- 10.6 Summary -- References -- 11: Assessment of Extreme Firework Episode in a Coastal City of Southern India: Kannur as a Case Study -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Description of Monitoring Site -- 11.3 Results and Discussion -- 11.3.1 Variation of Surface O3 -- 11.3.2 Variation of Oxides of Nitrogen -- 11.3.3 Variation of CO and SO2 -- 11.3.4 Diurnal Variation of BTEX and NH3 -- 11.3.5 Variation of PM10 and PM2.5 -- 11.3.6 Variation of Metal Concentrations Associated with Particulate Matters -- 11.4 Conclusion -- References -- 12: Air Pollution Episodes: Brief History, Mechanisms and Outlook -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Global Distribution of Air Pollution -- 12.3 Major Historical Episodes and Impacts -- 12.4 Important Mechanisms and Challenges. , 12.5 Some Perspectives on Control Measures and Outlook -- 12.6 Summary -- References -- 13: Increasing Atmospheric Extreme Events and Role of Disaster Risk Management: Dimensions and Approaches -- 13.1 Background -- 13.2 Atmospheric Dynamics and Feedbacks -- 13.3 Increase in Frequency and Intensity of Atmospheric Extremes -- 13.3.1 Large-Scale Atmospheric Extremes -- 13.3.1.1 Heat and Cold Waves -- 13.3.1.2 Precipitation Modification -- 13.3.1.3 Droughts -- 13.3.1.4 Dust Storms -- 13.3.1.5 Forest Fires and Biomass Burning -- 13.3.2 Regional and Local-Scale Atmospheric Extremes -- 13.3.2.1 Urban Heat Island and CO2 Domes -- 13.3.2.2 Extreme Precipitation Events and Urban Flooding -- 13.3.2.3 Crop Residue Burning and Smog -- 13.4 Vulnerability to Disaster -- 13.5 Disaster Risk Management -- 13.5.1 Scientific Dimensions and Decision Support Systems -- 13.5.2 Disaster Risk Reduction, Mitigation and Adaptation -- 13.5.3 Early Warning Systems and Post-disaster Management -- 13.6 Summary -- References -- 14: Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response for Air Pollution and Related Health Extremes -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Air Pollution Risks and Episodes -- 14.3 Air Pollution as Disaster and Its Preparedness -- 14.4 Air Pollution Emergency Causes -- 14.4.1 Dense Fog and Smog -- 14.4.2 Chemical/Industrial Accidents -- 14.4.3 Dust and Sand Storms -- 14.4.4 Urban Air Pollution -- 14.4.5 Biomass Burning -- 14.4.6 Forest Fire -- 14.5 Air Pollution as Public Health Emergency -- 14.6 Existing Policies and Recommendations -- 14.7 Integrated Approach to Deal with Air Pollution as Disaster -- 14.8 Conclusion -- References -- 15: Cost-Effective Technologies for Control of Air Pollution and Atmospheric-Related Extremes -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 Air Pollution Management -- 15.2.1 Step 1: Emissions Definition -- 15.2.2 Step 2: Define the Target Groups. , 15.2.3 Step 3: Determination of Acceptable Exposure Levels.

Anmerkung: Intro -- Contents -- About the Editors -- Chapter 1: Introduction -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Summary of Chapters -- 1.3 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2: Monitoring and Assessment of Air Pollution -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Impacts of Air Pollution -- 2.3 Measurement of Air Pollution -- 2.3.1 Spectroscopic Techniques -- 2.3.2 Sampling Methods -- 2.3.3 Chromatography Techniques -- 2.3.4 Size Measurement Techniques -- 2.3.5 Remote Sensing: An Important Tool for Air Pollution Measurement -- 2.3.5.1 Measurement of Atmospheric Aerosol -- 2.3.5.2 Measurement of Ozone -- 2.3.5.3 Measurement of Tropospheric Nitrogen Dioxide -- 2.3.5.4 Measurement of Carbon Monoxide -- 2.3.5.5 Measurement of Sulfur Dioxide -- 2.3.5.6 Measurement of Methane -- 2.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3: Air Pollution Modeling -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.1.1 Components of Air Pollution Modeling -- 3.1.1.1 Inventory of Sources and Emissions -- 3.1.1.2 Transport Circulation and Parameterization -- 3.1.1.3 Chemical Transformations -- 3.1.1.4 Removal Process -- 3.1.1.5 Meteorology -- 3.2 Classification of Air Pollution Models -- 3.2.1 Lagrangian and Eulerian Models -- 3.2.2 Spatial and Temporal Scale -- 3.3 Dispersion Modeling -- 3.3.1 Photochemical Modeling -- 3.3.2 Plume Rise Models -- 3.4 WRF/Chem Model -- 3.5 Overview of Air Pollution Modeling Studies -- 3.5.1 Role of Air Pollution on Human Health -- 3.5.2 Dust Aerosols and Tropospheric Chemistry -- 3.6 Summary and Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 4: Impact of Air Pollutants on Plant Metabolism and Antioxidant Machinery -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Air Pollutants and Their Impacts on Plant Health -- 4.3 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) -- 4.4 Nitrogen-Containing Pollutants NOX and NHy -- 4.5 Ozone -- 4.6 Fluorides -- 4.7 Effect of Particulate Matter -- 4.8 Summary -- References. , Chapter 5: Role of Global Climate Change in Crop Yield Reductions -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Crop Response to Climate Change -- 5.2.1 Effect of Elevated CO2 on C3 Versus C4 Plants -- 5.2.1.1 Elevated CO2 Affects Photosynthesis -- 5.2.1.1.1 C3 Versus C4 Plants -- 5.2.1.1.2 Effect of Elevated CO2 Enrichment on Crop Plant -- 5.2.1.1.3 Implication and Mechanism of Elevated CO2 on C3 Versus C4 Plant -- 5.2.1.2 Elevated CO2 Affects Dark Respiration -- 5.2.1.2.1 Mechanism for Dark Respiration Inhibition -- 5.2.1.3 Elevated CO2 Affects Stomatal Conductance, Water Use Efficiency, and Transpiration -- 5.2.1.4 Elevated CO2 Affects Product Quality and Yields -- 5.3 Effect of Higher Temperature on C3 and C4 Plants -- 5.3.1 Temperature -- 5.3.1.1 Elevated Temperatures Affect Photosynthesis Versus Photorespiration Process -- 5.3.1.2 Effect of Temperature on Phenology of Crop Plants -- 5.4 Interactions of Higher Temperature and Elevated CO2 with Product Quality and Yield -- 5.5 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies -- 5.6 Summary -- References -- Chapter 6: Air Pollution and Its Role in Stress Physiology -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 SO2 and Its Effect on Plant Physiology -- 6.2.1 SO2 and Its Effect on Stomata -- 6.2.2 SO2 and Its Effect on Photosynthesis -- 6.2.3 SO2 and Its Effect on Respiration and Photorespiration -- 6.3 NOX and Its Effect on Plant Physiology -- 6.3.1 Effect of NO2 on Stomatal Conductance -- 6.3.2 Effect of NOx on Photosynthesis -- 6.3.3 Effect of NO2 on Respiration and Photorespiration -- 6.4 O3 and Its Effect on Plant Physiology -- 6.4.1 Effects of Ozone Stress on Stomatal Conductance -- 6.4.2 Effects of Ozone on Photosynthesis -- 6.4.3 Effects of Ozone on Respiration and Photorespiration -- 6.4.3.1 Photorespiration -- 6.5 Conclusion and Future Recommendations -- References -- Chapter 7: Air Pollution Exposure Studies Related to Human Health. , 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Types of Air Pollution Impacting Human Health -- 7.3 Pollutants Are Categorized into Four Major Categories Depending on Their Physical and Chemical Nature -- 7.3.1 Gaseous Pollutants (e.g., SO2, NOx, COx, O3, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Such as Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) -- 7.3.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) (e.g., Dioxins) -- 7.3.3 Heavy Metals -- 7.3.4 Respirable Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10) -- 7.4 Impact of Air Pollution on Human Health -- 7.5 Respiratory System -- 7.5.1 Asthma and Respiratory Disorder -- 7.5.2 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) -- 7.5.3 Pulmonary Carcinogenesis and Mutagenesis -- 7.6 Cardiovascular System -- 7.6.1 Blood Pressure and Hypertension -- 7.6.2 Systemic Inflammation and Oxidative Stress -- 7.6.3 Vascular Endothelial Dysfunction and Atherosclerosis -- 7.6.4 Myocardial Infarction, Heart Failure, and Anemia -- 7.7 Nervous System -- 7.7.1 Neuro-inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Neurotoxicity -- 7.7.2 Neurological Disorder and Neuropsychological Effects -- 7.7.3 Stroke -- 7.8 Digestive System -- 7.8.1 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) and Appendicitis -- 7.8.2 Gastrointestinal Tumor -- 7.9 Effect on Fertility, Reproduction, and Pregnancy -- 7.9.1 Fertility -- 7.9.2 Fetus Development, Child Birth, and Development -- 7.9.3 In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), Clinical Pregnancy, and Implantation Rates -- 7.9.4 Miscarriage -- 7.10 Effect on Skin -- 7.10.1 Oxidative Stress, Skin Aging, and Pigmentation -- 7.10.2 Dermatitis, Psoriasis, and Eczema -- 7.10.3 Skin Cancer -- 7.11 Summary -- References -- Chapter 8: Impacts of Air Pollution on Epidemiology and Cardiovascular Systems -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Air Pollution and Human Health -- 8.2.1 Particulate Matter (PM) -- 8.2.2 Ozone (O3) -- 8.2.3 Carbon Monoxide (CO) -- 8.2.4 Nitrogen Oxides -- 8.2.5 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). , 8.3 Air Pollution-Induced Cardiovascular Index and Their Consequences to Morbidity and Mortality -- 8.3.1 Heart Rate (HR) and Heart Rate Variability (HRV) -- 8.3.2 Arrhythmia, Heart Failure, and Cardiac Arrest -- 8.3.3 Ischemic Heart Disease -- 8.3.4 Thrombosis and Coagulation -- 8.3.5 Cerebrovascular Disease/Stroke -- 8.3.6 Blood Pressure, Vascular Tone, and Atherosclerosis -- 8.3.7 Hypertension -- 8.4 Mechanism of Cardiovascular Toxicity Induced by Air Pollutants -- 8.4.1 PM-induced Pulmonary Inflammatory Responses Promote Oxidative and Cardiovascular Stress -- 8.4.2 Exposure of PM Leads to Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Imbalance and Pathological Alterations -- 8.4.3 Inhaled Air Pollutants Directly Translocate in the Circulatory System and Perturb the Distant Cell and Tissue Components... -- 8.5 Epidemiology of Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease -- 8.6 Summary and Recommendations -- References -- Chapter 9: Health Risk Assessment and Management of Air Pollutants -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.1.1 Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) -- 9.1.2 Outdoor/Ambient Air Pollution -- 9.2 Air Pollutants -- 9.2.1 Classification of Air Pollutants -- 9.2.1.1 Primary Air Pollutants (Precursors) -- 9.2.1.2 Secondary Air Pollutants -- 9.3 Sources of Air Pollutants -- 9.3.1 Natural Sources -- 9.3.2 Anthropogenic (Human-Made) Sources -- 9.4 Effect of Air Pollutants on Human Health -- 9.5 Health Risk -- 9.5.1 Estimation of Health Risk -- 9.5.2 Quantification of Health Impact -- 9.5.2.1 Number of Attributable Deaths or Cases of Diseases -- 9.5.2.2 Years of Life Lost (YLL) -- 9.5.2.3 Years Lost Due to Disability (YLD) -- 9.5.2.4 Disability-Adjusted Life Years -- 9.5.3 Health Risk Assessment (RA) -- 9.6 Approaches to Improve Ambient Air Quality -- 9.6.1 Source Control -- 9.6.1.1 Transportation -- 9.6.1.2 Waste Burning -- 9.6.1.3 Industries -- 9.6.1.4 Diesel Generator. , 9.6.1.5 Dust and Construction -- 9.6.1.6 Coal: Fired Power Plant -- 9.6.2 Other Measures -- 9.6.3 Purification of Air -- 9.6.4 Implication of Policies -- 9.7 Approaches to Improve Air Quality in Indoor Environment -- 9.7.1 Source Control -- 9.7.1.1 Domestic Cooking -- 9.7.2 Ventilation Improvements -- 9.7.3 Air Cleaners -- 9.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 10: Air Quality Management Practices: A Sustainable Perspective -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 The Development of the Concept of Sustainable Development -- 10.2.1 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1972 -- 10.2.2 World Commission on Environment and Development Report of 1987 -- 10.2.3 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 1992 -- 10.2.4 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), 2002 -- 10.3 Toward Sustainable Air Practices -- 10.3.1 Indian Experience -- 10.3.2 Introduction of ``Command and Control´´ -- 10.3.3 Justification for Air Act, 1981 -- 10.3.4 Amendments to the Air Act in the 1980s -- 10.3.5 Central and State Pollution Control Boards -- 10.3.6 Powers of ``Direct Enforcement´´: Power to Issue Directions -- 10.3.7 Mechanism for Enforcement: Importance of Criminal Sanctions -- 10.4 Judicial Attempts to Ensure Sustainable Air Practices -- 10.5 Conclusion -- References.

Anmerkung: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Acknowledgements -- Contents -- About the Authors -- Abbreviations -- 1: Introduction -- 1.1 General Introduction -- 1.2 Importance of Technologies in Climate Change Research on Agriculture -- 1.3 Summary -- References -- 2: Carbon Dioxide -- 2.1 Measurements of Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the Atmosphere, Soil and Agricultural Crops -- 2.1.1 Infrared Gas Analysis -- 2.1.2 Eddy Covariance Technique -- Components of Eddy Covariance System -- Major Components Used in Eddy Covariance Technique -- Sonic Anemometer -- Data Storage -- Power Supply -- Flux Calculations -- Measurements Using Eddy Covariance Flux Towers -- Limitations -- 2.1.3 Gas Chromatography -- 2.1.4 Spectroscopic Methods -- 2.1.5 Carbon Stock Measurement Technique -- 2.1.6 Wet Digestion -- 2.1.7 Dry Combustion -- 2.1.8 Dry Combustion in an Elemental Analyser -- 2.1.9 Fractionation of Soil Organic Carbon -- 2.1.10 Physical Fractions -- 2.1.11 Chemical Fractionation -- 2.1.12 Spectroscopic Method -- 2.1.13 Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) -- 2.1.14 Inelastic Neutron Scattering (INS) -- 2.1.15 CO2 Emission Measurement from Soil: Quantitative Approach -- Alkali Trap Method -- Soil Respirator Method -- Infrared Gas Analysis Method -- Closed-Chamber Method -- 2.1.16 Space-Borne Measurements -- 2.2 Technologies Associated with CO2 Enrichment Studies (Crop Response Studies) -- 2.2.1 Leaf Cuvettes -- 2.2.2 Sunlit-Controlled Environment Chambers -- 2.2.3 Soil Plant Atmosphere Research (SPAR) System -- 2.2.4 Portable Field Chamber -- 2.2.5 Open-Top Chamber -- 2.2.6 Screen-Aided CO2 Control (SACC) -- 2.2.7 Free Air CO2 Enrichment Technology (FACE) -- 2.3 Modelling Techniques -- 2.4 Mitigation Technologies -- 2.4.1 Carbon Sequestration -- Land-Based Enhanced Rock Weathering Method of Carbon Sequestration: -- 2.4.2 Zero-Tillage -- 2.4.3 Agroforestry. , 2.4.4 Crop Residue Management -- 2.4.5 Biofuels -- 2.4.6 Biochar -- 2.4.7 Mycorrhiza -- 2.4.8 Microalgae -- 2.4.9 Organic Agriculture -- 2.5 Summary -- References -- 3: Methane -- 3.1 Technologies Associated with Methane (CH4) Emission and Crop Response Studies -- 3.1.1 Measurements of Methane Emission in Stationary Mode -- 3.1.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) -- 3.1.3 Non-micrometeorological Techniques -- Chamber Techniques: -- Calculation of Methane Flux -- Enteric Tracer Ratio -- External Tracer Ratio -- Mass Balance from Barns -- 3.1.4 Micrometeorological Techniques -- Mass Balance -- Integrated Horizontal Flux (IHF) -- Modified Mass Difference (MMD) Approach -- Vertical Flux Techniques -- Eddy Covariance (EC) -- 3.2 Modelling Techniques -- 3.3 Mitigation Technologies -- 3.3.1 Potassium Amendment -- 3.3.2 Midseason Drainage -- 3.3.3 Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) Technology -- 3.3.4 Nitrogen Fertilizer on Methane Emissions -- 3.3.5 Biocovers of Landfills -- 3.3.6 Biological Aspect of the Amendment of Methanogenic Activity -- 3.3.7 Breeding Rice Cultivars for Reduced Methane Emissions -- 3.4 Summary -- References -- 4: Nitrous Oxide -- 4.1 Methods for Measurement of Nitrous Oxide (N2O) in Atmosphere and Soil -- 4.1.1 Soil Surface Gas Flux Measurement Methods -- Advantages of Closed-Chamber Method -- Precautions -- Limitations -- Points to Minimize the Uncertainties -- 4.1.2 Micrometeorological Technique -- Calculation of N2O Flux -- 4.2 Modelling Techniques -- 4.3 Mitigation Technologies -- 4.3.1 Fertilizer Management Technology -- 4.3.2 Slow Release of Fertilizer Application and Manipulation Technologies -- 4.3.3 Water Management Technology for Mitigation of N2O Emission -- 4.4 Summary -- References -- 5: Ozone -- 5.1 Methods for Studying the Effect of Ozone (O3) on Agricultural Crops -- 5.1.1 Ozone-Generating Technologies. , 5.2 Modelling Techniques -- 5.3 Mitigation Technologies -- 5.4 Summary -- References -- 6: Temperature -- 6.1 Methods for Measurement of Temperature in Crops, Soil and Atmosphere -- 6.2 Temperature Enrichment Technologies for Crop Response Studies -- 6.2.1 Temperature Gradient Chambers -- 6.2.2 Temperature Gradient Greenhouses (TGG) -- 6.2.3 SPAR System (Soil Plant Atmosphere Research System) -- 6.2.4 Infrared (IR) Warming Technology -- 6.2.5 Free Air Temperature Enrichment Technology (FATE) -- 6.2.6 Soil Warming System -- 6.3 Modelling Techniques -- 6.4 Mitigation Technologies -- 6.5 Summary -- References -- 7: The Plant Water Status -- 7.1 Methods for Measurement of Water Status in Plants and Soils -- 7.1.1 Dynamic Water Movement -- 7.2 Method to Determine Climate Change Effect on Crop Water Productivity -- 7.3 Method to Estimate Climate Change Impact on Soil Water Balance -- 7.4 Mitigation Technologies for Water Stress -- 7.5 Summary -- References -- 8: Summary -- Glossary.

Anmerkung: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- About the Authors -- 1: Introduction -- 1.1 General Introduction -- 1.2 Summary of Chapters -- 1.3 Conclusion -- References -- 2: Criteria Air Pollutants: Chemistry, Sources and Sinks -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Air Pollution Sources and Their Emissions -- 2.2.1 Anthropogenic Sources -- 2.2.2 Natural Sources -- 2.2.3 Stationary Sources -- 2.2.3.1 Point Source -- 2.2.3.2 Area Sources -- 2.2.3.3 Fugitive Sources -- 2.2.3.4 Volume Sources -- 2.2.4 Mobile Sources -- 2.3 Particulate Matter (PM) -- 2.3.1 Particulate Matter in Atmosphere -- 2.3.2 Health Effects of PM10 -- 2.3.3 Chemistry of Particulate Matter -- 2.3.3.1 Chemical Composition of PM -- 2.3.3.2 Gas-Particle Conversion and Secondary Aerosol Formation -- 2.3.4 Ambient PM and Their Atmospheric Processes -- 2.3.4.1 Hygroscopicity and Ageing of PM -- 2.4 Carbon Monoxide (CO) -- 2.4.1 Sources -- 2.4.2 CO Level and Trend -- 2.4.3 Chemistry and Sink of CO -- 2.5 Lead (Pb) -- 2.5.1 Sources -- 2.5.2 Levels and Distribution of Lead -- 2.5.3 Exposure, Chemistry and Sink of Lead -- 2.6 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) -- 2.6.1 Sources of NO2 -- 2.6.2 Levels and Distribution of NO2 -- 2.6.3 Chemistry of NO2 in the Atmosphere -- 2.6.4 Sink of NO2 -- 2.7 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) -- 2.7.1 Sources -- 2.7.2 Emissions of Oxides of Sulphur -- 2.7.3 Levels and Trend of SO2 -- 2.7.4 Chemistry of SO2 -- 2.7.5 Sink of SO2 -- 2.8 Tropospheric Ozone (O3) -- 2.8.1 Chemistry of Tropospheric Ozone -- 2.8.2 Sinks of the Tropospheric Ozone -- 2.9 Conclusions -- References -- 3: Primary Criteria Air Pollutants: Environmental Health Effects -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Environmental Health Effects -- 3.2.1 Impact of SO2 and NO2 on Environmental Health -- 3.2.1.1 Acid Rain -- Impact of Acid Rain on Ecosystem -- Impact of Acid Rain on Plants and Trees -- Impact of Acid Rain on Fish and Wildlife. , Episodic Acidification -- Effects of Acid Rain on Materials -- Acid Rain Effects on Human Health -- 3.2.2 Particulate Matter and Its Impact on Environment -- 3.2.2.1 Deposition of PM -- 3.2.2.2 Coarse (PM10) and Fine Fraction (PM2.5) Particles -- 3.2.2.3 Mode of Depositions -- Dry Deposition -- Wet Deposition -- Occult Deposition -- 3.2.2.4 PM Deposition onto Vegetation and Their Effects -- 3.2.2.5 Plant Responses to Stress Caused by PM -- 3.2.2.6 Health Effects of PM -- 3.2.2.7 Burden of Disease Related to Exposure to PM -- 3.2.2.8 PM Effects on Climate -- Direct Effect -- PM Indirect Effect on Climate -- 3.2.2.9 Acid Rain and Eutrophication -- 3.2.2.10 Atmospheric Haze -- 3.2.3 Impact of Carbon Monoxide on Environmental Health -- 3.2.3.1 CO Toxicity -- 3.2.3.2 Health Effects -- Effects on Humans -- Neurological and Behavioural Effects -- Cardiovascular Effects -- Developmental Effects -- 3.2.3.3 Impact of Indoor CO -- 3.2.4 Impact of Lead and Environmental Health -- 3.2.4.1 Lead Sources and Routes of Exposure -- 3.2.4.2 Effects of Lead in Children -- 3.2.4.3 Effects of Lead in Adults -- 3.2.4.4 Environmental Effects of Lead -- 3.3 Conclusions -- References -- 4: Secondary Criteria Air Pollutants: Environmental Health Effects -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Secondary Criteria Air Pollutant: Tropospheric Ozone -- 4.2.1 Tropospheric Ozone Formation -- 4.2.2 Overall Trends of Tropospheric Ozone Levels: Present Status and Future Predicted Trends -- 4.2.2.1 Global Ozone Distribution -- 4.2.2.2 Tropospheric Ozone: An Indian Scenario -- 4.2.3 O3 Concentrations Predictions -- 4.3 Impact of Tropospheric Ozone on Climate -- 4.4 Impact of Tropospheric Ozone on Human Health -- 4.4.1 Acute Health Impacts -- 4.4.2 Chronic Health Impacts -- 4.4.3 Guidelines for Human Health: Ozone Exposure -- 4.5 Impact of Tropospheric Ozone on Plant Health. , 4.5.1 Ozone Relationship with Oxidative Stress and Other Physiological Responses -- 4.5.1.1 Ozone Generated ROS Formation and Signal Transduction -- 4.5.1.2 ROS Defence Mechanisms: Role of Antioxidants -- 4.5.2 Characterization of Ozone Exposure -- 4.5.3 Ozone Deposition Mechanism -- 4.5.4 Effects of Ozone on Physiology and Biochemistry of Plants -- 4.5.4.1 Impact of Tropospheric Ozone on Pigment Content -- 4.5.4.2 Impact of Tropospheric Ozone on Starch Content -- 4.5.4.3 Impact on Proline Content -- 4.5.4.4 Enzymatic Profiles and Role of Antioxidants -- 4.5.5 Impact of Tropospheric Ozone on Photosynthetic Rate, Stomatal Conductance and Photosynthetic Output Rate -- 4.5.5.1 Photosynthetic Pigments -- 4.5.5.2 RuBisCO Content -- 4.6 Conclusion -- References -- 5: Policy Regulations and Future Recommendations -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Source Emission Control -- 5.1.1.1 Elimination Approach -- 5.2 Choice of Fuel -- 5.3 Fuel Cleaning -- 5.4 Selection of Technology and Methods -- 5.4.1 Emission Control Approaches -- 5.5 Particle control system -- 5.5.1 Gas- and Vapour-Phase Control System -- 5.5.2 Policy Rules and Regulation -- 5.5.2.1 Bharat/Euro Emission Standards -- 5.6 Stringent Measures Taken to Control Sector-Wise Emissions -- 5.6.1 Transport Sector -- 5.6.2 Industrial Sector -- 5.6.3 Agricultural Sector -- 5.7 Pollutant-Wise Mitigation -- 5.8 Carbon Monoxide (CO) -- 5.9 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) -- 5.10 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) -- 5.11 Lead (Pb) -- 5.12 Ozone (O3) -- 5.13 NOx Reasonably Available Control Technology (RACT) -- 5.14 Ozone Transport Region (OTR) NOx Cap and Allowance Trading Program -- 5.15 EPA´s Ozone Transport NOx SIP Call -- 5.16 Particulate Matter (PM) -- 5.17 Policy Initiatives in India -- 5.18 Legal Framework -- 5.19 Legislation of Environment Programmes -- 5.20 Odd-Even Plan in Delhi -- 5.21 Strict Emission Norms. , 5.22 Restructuring the Growth -- 5.23 Institutional Framework -- 5.24 Green Technology in India -- 5.25 Conclusion -- References.

Anmerkung: Intro -- Foreword -- Acknowledgements -- About the Book -- Contents -- About the Editors -- Acronyms -- 1: Introduction to Greenhouse Gases: Sources, Sinks and Mitigation -- 1 General Introduction -- 2 Summary of Chapters -- References -- 2: Source Apportionment of Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate Change -- 3 Major GHGs in the Atmosphere -- 3.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) -- 3.2 Methane (CH4) -- 3.3 Nitrous Oxide (N2O) -- 3.4 Fluorinated Gases (HFCS, PFCS, SF6) -- 4 Important Factors of Green House Gas Emission -- 4.1 Increasing Energy Demand -- 4.2 GDP vs Emissions -- 4.3 Urbanization -- 4.4 Growing Vehicle Use -- 4.5 Industry -- 5 Greenhouse Gases Budget of Different Countries and Their Contribution -- 6 Source Apportionment of GHGs in the Atmosphere -- 6.1 Source Identification -- 6.2 Identification of Key Source Categories for Inventory Work -- 6.3 Data Collection: Activity Data and Facility Data -- 6.4 Quality Assurance and Quality Control -- 6.5 Development of ``Emission Factor´´ (EF) for Different Source Categories -- 6.6 Estimation of GHG Emission Levels -- 7 Conclusion -- References -- 3: Identification of Major Sinks of Greenhouse Gases -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Major Sinks for GHGs: Global Scenario and Significance -- 3 Sinks for Carbon Dioxide -- 3.1 Oceans as Sink for CO2 -- 3.2 Terrestrial Biosphere as Sink for CO2 -- 3.3 Forests as Sinks for CO2 -- 3.4 Boreal Landscape as Sink for Carbon -- 3.5 Challenges with Terrestrial Sinks -- 4 Sinks for Methane -- 4.1 Wetlands as Sink of Methane and Other GHGs -- 5 Sinks for Oxides of Nitrogen -- 6 Sinks of Halogen-Containing Gases -- 7 Artificial Removal of the Greenhouse Gases -- 8 Future Challenges -- 9 Recommendations -- Box 3.1 FAQs -- Box 3.2 Ocean Fertilization -- Box 3.3 Biochar. , Box 3.4 Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) -- References -- 4: Greenhouse Gas Emission Flux from Forest Ecosystem -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Main GHGs -- 1.2 Source-Sink Aspect of Flux from Forest -- 1.3 National/International Bodies Involved in GHG Emissions Regulation -- 2 Emission of Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming -- 3 GHGs Emission from Forest and Global Flux Estimates/Contribution (Table 4.1) -- 4 GHG Flux Measurement Techniques (Fig.4.1) -- 4.1 Eddy Covariance Flux Tower -- 4.2 Chamber Systems -- 4.2.1 Closed Chambers -- 4.2.2 Open-chambers -- 4.3 Space-Borne Measurements -- 4.4 Air-Borne Measurements -- 4.5 Soil Emissions Modelling -- 4.6 Environmental Measurements -- 4.6.1 Infrared Techniques -- 5 Factors Governing GHG Production and Emission from Forests Ecosystem -- 5.1 Land-Use and Land Cover Changes -- 5.2 Substrate Availability -- 5.3 Temperature -- 5.4 Precipitation and Soil Water -- 5.5 Soil pH-Values -- 5.6 Nitrogen -- 5.7 Salinity and Sodicity -- 5.8 Increasing CO2 and Atmospheric N-deposition -- 5.9 Vegetation -- 5.10 Soil and Plant Characteristics -- 5.11 Forest Fires -- 6 Impact of Forest Generated GHG on Climate and Environmental Health -- 6.1 Deforestation and Climate Change -- 6.2 Forest Degradation and Climate Change -- 6.3 Forest Fires and Climate Change -- 7 Conclusion -- References -- 5: Effect of Greenhouse Gases on Human Health -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Major GHGs -- 1.1.1 CO2 -- 1.1.2 Ozone -- 1.1.3 Methane (CH4) -- 1.1.4 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) -- 1.1.5 Nitrous Oxide -- 1.2 Sources of GHGs -- 2 Trends of GHGs Levels Considering Past Several Decades -- 3 Impacts of GHGs -- 4 Impacts of GHGs on Human Health -- 4.1 Mechanism of CO2 Effect on Human Health -- 4.1.1 Human Health Impacts Due to CO2 -- 4.2 Mechanisms of Ozone Effects -- 4.2.1 Effect of Ozone on Human Health. , 4.3 Mechanism of Methane´s Action on Human Body -- 4.3.1 Health Effects -- 4.4 Mechanism of Action of Chloroflouro Carbons (CFC) -- 4.5 Mechanism of Action of Nitrous Oxide -- 4.5.1 Effect on Human Health -- 5 Complexities Assessing Impact of Greenhouse Gases on Human Health -- 6 Control Measures to Reduce GHG Emissions to Protect Human Health -- 7 Conclusion -- References -- 6: Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gases Emissions: Implications in Food Production and Food Security -- 1 Introduction -- 2 How Climate Change Influences Food Security? -- 2.1 Link Between GHGs, Air Quality, and Climate -- 2.1.1 Agriculture: A Source of Greenhouse Gases and Air Pollution -- 3 Role of SLCP and Greenhouse Gas (Ozone and Black Carbon) Emissions in Food Production -- 3.1 Considering O3 with Temperature Extremes Under CC -- 4 Food Security, Food Production, and Air Pollution: Scenario in India -- 4.1 Performance of India in Terms of Food Availability -- 4.2 Air Pollution Status in India -- 4.2.1 Biomass Burning in Northern Indian States -- 4.3 Temporal Evolution of Food Crop Production and Vegetation Index in North India and Its Relation to Air Pollution -- Box 6.1 Agricultural Growth in Punjab and Haryana: The Two Main Green Revolution States -- 4.4 Crop Yield Losses Due to Climate Change and Air Pollution -- 5 Conclusion -- References -- 7: Optimization of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Through Simulation Modeling: Analysis and Interpretation -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Need for Climate Modeling -- 2.1 Energy Balance Models (EBMs) -- 2.2 Earth System Models of Intermediate Complexity (EMICs) -- 2.3 Global Climate Models or Global/General Circulation Models (GCMs) -- 3 Energy Models -- 3.1 Scenario-Based Stock-Turnover Model -- 3.2 Bottom-Up Optimization Model -- 3.3 The Macroeconomic Models -- 3.4 Economic-Dispatch Production Simulation Model. , 4 General Circulation Models (GCMs) -- 4.1 Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Climate Model (CNRM) -- 5 Global Climate Model -- 6 Integrated Assessment Modeling -- 6.1 Need for Integrated Modeling -- 6.2 Integrated Assessment Model -- 6.2.1 The Asian-Pacific Integrated Model (AIM) -- 6.2.2 Dynamic Integrated Model of Climate and the Economy (DICE) -- 6.2.3 Feedback-Rich Energy-Economy Model (FREE) -- 6.2.4 Integrated Climate Assessment Model (ICAM) -- 6.2.5 Integrated Model to Assess the Greenhouse Effect (IMAGE) -- 6.2.6 Integrated Global System Model (IGSM) -- 6.2.7 Mini Climate Assessment Model (MiniCAM) -- 6.2.8 Regional Integrated Model of Climate and the Economy (RICE) -- 7 Conclusion -- References -- 8: Role of Biomass Burning in Greenhouse Gases Emission -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Sources of Major Greenhouse Gases -- 3 The Scenario of BB Emissions -- 3.1 BB Emissions in Asia -- 3.2 BB Emissions Pattern Change Over the Last Millennium: Inferences from Paleo Records in Polar Ice Cores -- 3.3 Remote Sensing of BB Emission Activity -- 4 The Need for Initiatives to Tackle Air Pollution -- 5 Conclusions -- 6 Recommendations for Clean Air to All -- 6.1 Need for Spatio-Temporal Data Set on Air Pollutants -- 6.2 Determination of Uncertainties -- 6.3 Building Up of Multiple-Year Emission Inventories -- 6.4 Reconcile Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches -- 6.5 Clean and Green Air Action Plan -- References -- 9: Ozone Impacts and Climate Forcing: Thailand as a Case Study -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Global Tropospheric Ozone Precursors and Ozone Trends -- 3 Tropospheric Ozone Chemistry: Major Sources and Sinks -- 4 Effects of Tropospheric Ozone -- 5 Ozone as a Greenhouse Gas -- 6 Relationship Between Ozone and Its Precursors -- 7 Ozone Management -- 8 Summary -- References -- 10: Role of Nanotechnology in Combating CO2 in Atmosphere -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Metal Oxides. , 3 Alkali Metal Oxides -- 4 Alkaline Earth Metal Oxides -- 5 Transition Metal Oxides -- 6 Perovskites -- 7 Carbon-Based Nano-Sorbents -- 8 Nanoporous Carbon-Based Materials -- 9 Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) -- 10 Graphene -- 11 Metalorganic Frameworks -- 12 Reduction of CO2 by Different Methods with MoFs -- 13 Mesoporous Silica Nano Particles -- 13.1 Nano Zeolites -- 13.2 Nanobiocatalyst -- 14 Conclusion -- References -- 11: Mitigation Strategies of Greenhouse Gas Control: Policy Measures -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Global Scenario -- 2.1 UNFCCC -- 2.2 KYOTO Protocol -- 2.3 Copenhagen Summit, 2009 -- 2.4 LIMA Climate Change Conference, 2014 -- 2.5 Marrakech Climate Change Conference, 2016 -- 2.6 Paris Agreement COP 21, 2015 -- 3 Mitigation Strategies: Regulatory Approaches -- 3.1 GHG Mitigation Options -- 3.2 Market Based Mitigation Policies (MBMPs) -- 3.3 Geo-engineering -- 4 Developed Countries -- 4.1 Japan -- 4.2 Sweden -- 4.3 United Kingdom -- 5 Developing Countries -- 5.1 India -- 5.2 Brazil -- 5.3 China -- 6 Conclusion -- References -- Glossary of Terms.

Anmerkung: Intro -- Acknowledgements -- Contents -- Editors and Contributors -- About the Editors -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Introduction -- 1.1 Background -- 1.2 Summary of the Chapters -- 1.3 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2: Transport Mechanisms, Potential Sources, and Radiative Impacts of Black Carbon Aerosols on the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau Glaciers -- 2.1 Background -- 2.2 Spatial Distribution of BC Mass Concentrations in the Himalayas-TP Atmosphere -- 2.3 Spatial Distribution of BC Aerosol in the Himalayas-TP Cryosphere -- 2.4 Climatic Impacts of BC Particle in the Atmosphere and Cryosphere -- 2.5 Seasonal Characteristics of BC in the Himalayas and TP -- 2.6 Potential Source Regions and Transport Mechanisms of BC -- 2.7 Atmospheric Pollution and Cryospheric Change (APCC) Research Framework -- 2.8 Summary and Future Direction -- References -- Chapter 3: Impact of Urban and Semi-urban Aerosols on the Cloud Microphysical Properties and Precipitation -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Aerosol-Cloud Interaction -- 3.3 Aerosol-Cloud-Radiation Interaction -- 3.4 Aerosol-Cloud-Precipitation Interaction -- 3.5 Summary and Way Forward -- References -- Chapter 4: Aerosol Characteristics and Its Impact on Regional Climate Over Northern India -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Aerosol Characteristics -- 4.2.1 Physical Characteristics -- 4.2.2 Optical Characteristics -- 4.2.3 Morphological and Chemical Characteristics -- 4.3 Spaceborne Observations -- 4.4 Aerosol Emission Sources -- 4.5 Aerosol Impacts on Regional Climate -- 4.6 Summary and Future Prospects -- References -- Chapter 5: Impacts of Air Pollution on Himalayan Region -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Topography and Economic Significance of the Himalaya -- 5.3 Status of Air Pollution in the Himalayan Region -- 5.3.1 Air Pollutant Level in the Himalayan Region -- 5.3.1.1 Particulate Matter. , 5.3.1.2 Gaseous Pollutants -- 5.3.1.3 Atmospheric Brown Cloud -- 5.3.2 Seasonal Trend of Air Pollutants -- 5.3.3 Diurnal Trend of Air Pollutant -- 5.4 Source of Air Pollution in the Himalayan Region -- 5.4.1 Solid Fuel for Cooking and Heating -- 5.4.2 Forest and Scrub Fires -- 5.4.3 Stubble and Garbage Burning -- 5.4.4 Industrial Growth and Urban Housing -- 5.4.5 Vehicles, Diesel Generators, and Pump Sets -- 5.4.6 Transported Pollution from Surrounding Regions -- 5.5 Effects of Air Pollution in the Himalayan Region -- 5.5.1 Climatic Effect -- 5.5.1.1 Temperature -- 5.5.1.2 Precipitation -- 5.5.1.3 Season Cycle -- 5.5.2 Cryosphere and Hydrosphere -- 5.5.3 Effect on Agro-forestry -- 5.5.4 Human Health Effects -- 5.6 Challenges in Tackling Air Pollution -- 5.6.1 Recognition of Problem -- 5.6.2 High Cost of Clean Fuels -- 5.6.3 Forest Degradation -- 5.6.4 Multilateral Collaboration and Coordination -- 5.6.5 Implementation Gaps and Challenges -- 5.7 Development and Mitigation Strategies -- 5.7.1 Development Strategies -- 5.7.2 Mitigation Strategies -- 5.7.2.1 Clean Energy -- 5.7.2.2 Upgrading Brick Kiln Technology -- 5.7.2.3 Urban and Transport Planning -- 5.7.2.4 Happy Seeder -- 5.7.2.5 Information and Education -- 5.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 6: Human-Associated Potential Risk of Metal-Bound Fine Particulate Matter -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Particulate Matter (PM) -- 6.1.2 Fine Particulate Air Pollution: A Global Scenario -- 6.1.3 Particulate Matter (PM2.5): Emission Sources and Types -- 6.1.4 Sources of Particulate Matter -- 6.1.4.1 Natural Sources of PM -- 6.1.4.2 Anthropogenic Sources of PM -- 6.1.5 Classification of Particulate Matter -- 6.1.5.1 According to the US Environmental Protection (USEPA) -- Inhalable Coarse Particles -- Fine Particles -- Ultrafine Particles -- 6.1.5.2 According to the ACGIH Classification. , Inhalable Particulate Matter (IPM) -- Thoracic Particulate Matter (TPM) -- Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM) -- 6.1.5.3 According to MODAL Classification -- Coarse Mode -- Nuclei Mode -- Accumulation Mode -- 6.2 Human Exposure to Atmospheric Fine Particles -- 6.2.1 Short-Term Exposure to PM2.5 -- 6.2.2 Long-Term Exposure to PM2.5 -- 6.2.2.1 Asthma -- 6.2.2.2 Pulmonary Emphysema -- 6.2.2.3 Lung Cancer -- 6.2.2.4 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) -- 6.2.2.5 Heart Rate Variability -- 6.2.2.6 Cardiovascular Disease -- 6.2.2.7 Oxidative Stress -- 6.3 Heavy Metals Associated with PM and Their Impacts of Exposure -- 6.3.1 Heavy Metals and Human Health -- 6.3.1.1 Cadmium (Cd) -- 6.3.1.2 Mercury (Hg) -- 6.3.1.3 Lead (Pb) -- 6.3.1.4 Chromium (Cr) -- 6.3.1.5 Arsenic (As) -- 6.4 Summary: Significance, Future Scope, and Recommendations -- References -- Chapter 7: Potential Impacts of Gaseous Air Pollutants on Global Crop Yields Under Climate Change Uncertainties and Urbanization -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Global Food Demand -- 7.3 Impacts of Anthropogenic-Driven Air Pollution, Climate Change, and Urbanization -- 7.3.1 Altered Atmospheric Chemistry -- 7.3.2 Future of Wheat, Rice, and Maize Yields -- 7.4 Summary and Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8: Impacts of Air Pollutants on Forest Ecosystem and Role in Ecological Imbalance -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Classification of Air Pollutants -- 8.3 Emission Sources of Common Air Pollutants -- 8.4 Uptake of Air Pollutants by Plants -- 8.5 Effect of Air Pollutants on Vegetation and Forests -- 8.6 Role of Air Pollutants in Ecological Imbalance -- 8.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9: Green Technologies to Combat Air Pollution -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.1.1 Scope and Importance of Green Technology -- 9.2 Growing Green: Role of an Individual (Green Lifestyle) -- 9.2.1 Growing Green: Role of Industry. , 9.2.2 Smog-Free Tower (Lungs of the City) -- 9.2.3 Scrubbers -- 9.2.3.1 Wet Scrubber -- 9.2.3.2 Dry Scrubber -- 9.2.3.3 Electrostatic Precipitator -- 9.2.4 Catalytic Converters -- 9.2.5 Photocatalytic Air Purifier -- 9.2.6 Solar Energy -- 9.2.6.1 Working Grounds of Solar Energy -- 9.2.6.2 Solar to Thermal Energy -- 9.2.6.3 Solar to Electricity -- 9.2.7 Hybrid Transportation and Greening the Fleet -- 9.2.8 Fuel Choices -- 9.2.9 Electric Vehicles -- 9.2.10 Green Train and Buses -- 9.2.11 Mobile Wall of Moss -- 9.2.12 Air-Purifying Billboard -- 9.3 Growing Green: Role of Government and Stakeholders -- 9.3.1 Carbon Credits -- 9.3.2 Carbon Sequestration -- 9.3.3 Vertical Forest City -- 9.3.3.1 System Advantages -- 9.3.4 Green Bulletins -- 9.3.5 Best Practices from Europe and Asia -- 9.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 10: Urban Mobility Associated Ambient Air Quality and Policies for Environmental Implications -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Urban Mobility and Associated Crisis -- 10.3 Urban Mobility and Air Quality -- 10.4 Transport Policies for Better Health and Environment -- 10.5 Conclusions -- References -- Index.

Anmerkung: Intro -- Contents -- About the Editors -- 1: Introduction -- 1.1 Air Pollution and Plant Health -- 1.2 Conclusion -- References -- 2: Air Quality: Global and Regional Emissions of Particulate Matter, SOx, and NOx -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Air Quality and Its Implications -- 2.1.2 Air Pollutants -- 2.2 Particulate Matter -- 2.2.1 Global and Regional Emissions of Particulate Matter -- 2.3 Oxides of Sulfur -- 2.3.1 Global and Regional Emissions of Oxides of Sulfur -- 2.4 Oxides of Nitrogen -- 2.4.1 Global and Regional Emissions of Oxides of Nitrogen -- 2.5 Conclusions -- References -- 3: Urban Air Pollutants and Their Impact on Biota -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Materials and Methods -- 3.3 Results and Discussion -- 3.3.1 Results of Monitoring -- 3.3.2 The Influence of Air Pollution on Plants -- 3.4 Conclusion -- References -- 4: Mechanisms of Plant Pollutant Uptake as Related to Effective Biomonitoring -- 4.1 Introduction -- Air Pollution and Biomonitoring -- Plants as Bioindicators -- 4.2 Comparison of PAH Accumulation in Plants -- PAH Accumulation in Pine Needles and Mosses -- Characteristics of PAHs -- Differences in PAH Accumulation in Pine Needles and Mosses -- PAH Proportions -- PAH Isomer Ratios -- 4.3 Influence of Plant Uptake Mechanisms on Their PAH Accumulation -- What Causes the Differences in the Accumulation of PAHs? -- Leaf Structure -- Uptake Mechanisms -- Influence of Soil Particles -- 4.4 Conclusion -- References -- 5: Role of Global Warming and Plant Signaling in BVOC Emissions -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 BVOC Emissions: Why and How -- 5.2.1 Mechanism of BVOC Emission -- 5.2.2 Role of Isoprene Synthase -- 5.3 Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of BVOCs -- 5.3.1 Production of Tropospheric Ozone -- 5.3.2 Secondary Aerosol Formation -- 5.4 Factors Affecting BVOC Emission. , 5.4.1 Taxonomic Characteristics -- 5.4.2 Temperature -- 5.4.2.1 Thermotolerance -- 5.4.3 Soil Moisture -- 5.5 BVOC Emission and Global Warming -- 5.6 BVOCs and Plant Signaling (Plant-Plant and Plant-Insect Herbivory) -- 5.7 Conclusion -- References -- 6: Biochemical Effects of Air Pollutants on Plants -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Effect on Pigment Content -- 6.3 Effect on Sugar Content -- 6.4 Effect on Proline Content -- 6.5 Effect on Enzymatic Activities and Role of Antioxidants -- 6.5.1 Enzymatic Activity and Peptide Defense -- 6.5.1.1 Catalase and Peroxidase -- 6.5.1.2 Dehydroascorbate Reductase (DHAR) -- 6.5.1.3 Ascorbate Reductase (APX) and Glutathione Reductase (GR) -- 6.5.2 Metabolic Compounds' Defense -- 6.5.2.1 Phenolic Compounds -- 6.5.2.2 Nitrogen Compounds -- Alkaloids -- Polyamines -- Amino Acids and Amines -- 6.5.2.3 Other Compounds -- Ascorbic Acid -- 6.6 Conclusion -- References -- 7: Air Pollutants and Photosynthetic Efficiency of Plants -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Leaf Damage -- 7.3 Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on the Photosynthetic Apparatus -- 7.3.1 Ozone -- 7.3.2 Sulphur Dioxide -- 7.3.3 Carbon Dioxide -- 7.3.4 Nitrogen Oxides -- 7.3.5 Pollutant Mixtures -- 7.4 Effect of Other Pollutants on the Photosynthesis -- 7.4.1 Peroxyacyl Nitrates -- 7.4.2 Fluorides -- 7.4.3 Acidic Rain and Fog -- 7.4.4 Particulate Matter -- 7.5 Conclusions -- References -- 8: Effect of Air Pollutants on Plant Gaseous Exchange Process: Effect on Stomata and Respiration -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Plant Responses to Air Pollutants -- 8.3 Entry and Effects of Pollutants on Plants -- 8.3.1 Uptake of Pollutants -- 8.3.2 Effect on Cuticle and Stomata -- 8.3.3 Effect on Plant Water Balance -- 8.3.4 Effect on Respiration -- 8.3.4.1 Respiratory Response to High Concentration of Pollutants. , 8.3.4.2 Respiratory Response to Low Concentration of Pollutants -- 8.3.4.3 Effect of Pollutants on Photorespiration -- 8.3.4.4 Changes in Respiration in Association with Photosynthesis -- 8.4 Conclusion -- References -- 9: Tropospheric Ozone: Impacts on Respiratory and Photosynthetic Processes -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Ozone Uptake and Effects -- 9.3 Effect of Ozone on Carbon Metabolism -- 9.3.1 Case of Woody Plants -- 9.3.2 Case of Herbaceous Plants -- 9.4 Ozone and Primary Metabolism -- 9.5 Conclusion -- References -- 10: Air Pollution Stress and Plant Response -- 10.1 The Cuticle and Its Interaction with Atmospheric Pollutants -- 10.2 Structural Changes Under the Effect of Air Pollution on Plants -- 10.2.1 Case Study 1 -- 10.2.2 Case Study 2 -- 10.3 Relationship Between Pollution and Fluctuating Asymmetry -- References -- 11: Biomonitoring and Remediation by Plants -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.1.1 Significance of Biomonitoring -- 11.1.2 Definition of Biomonitoring and Terminology -- 11.2 Biomonitoring by the Deposition/Accumulation of Air Pollutants in Plant Tissue -- 11.2.1 Biomonitoring of Nitrogen Deposition -- 11.2.2 Biomonitoring for Sulfur Deposition -- 11.2.3 Biomonitoring for Dust Deposition -- 11.2.4 Biomonitoring of the Chemical Component of Dust -- 11.2.4.1 Dustfall Fluxes of SO42- and NO3− on Foliar Surfaces -- 11.2.5 Biomonitoring of Deposition of Heavy Metals -- 11.2.6 Biomonitoring of Gaseous Pollutants Due To Changes Through Physiological and Biochemical Changes in Plants -- 11.2.6.1 Monitoring of Crops, Vegetables, and Trees Damaged by Air Pollution -- 11.2.6.2 Biomonitoring of Dust Particles Through Foliar Surface Morphology Observation -- 11.3 Phytoremediation of Atmospheric Pollutants -- 11.3.1 Principles of Phytoremediation -- 11.3.2 Two-Compartment Model for Phytoremediation. , 11.3.3 Properties of Air Phytoremediators: Ornamental Plants and Woody Trees -- 11.3.4 Examples of Phytoremediation of Various Air Pollutants -- 11.3.4.1 Particulate Matter -- 11.3.4.2 Heavy Metals -- 11.3.4.3 Inorganic Pollutants -- NOX and particulate N -- SO2 -- 11.3.4.4 Organic Pollutants -- 11.4 Applications of Genetic Engineering for Phytoremediation -- 11.4.1 Transgenic Plants for NO2 and VOC Pollution Control -- 11.4.2 Gas-Gas-Converting Plants That Convert Nitrogen Dioxide to Gaseous Nitrogen -- 11.5 Conclusion -- References -- 12: Air Pollution Control Policies and Regulations -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Control Method of Air Pollution -- 12.2.1 Source Emission Control -- 12.2.1.1 Replacement of Raw Material -- 12.2.1.2 Modification of Equipment -- 12.2.2 Pollution Control Equipment -- 12.2.2.1 Control Devices for Particulate Contaminants -- 12.2.2.2 Control Devices for Gaseous Contaminants -- Absorption -- Adsorption -- Condensation -- Combustion -- 12.2.3 Rules and Regulations -- 12.2.4 Bharat/Euro Emission Standards -- 12.2.5 Steps of Enforcement of Environmental Legislation -- 12.2.6 Case Study -- 12.3 IPCC and IPPC Recommendation for Plant Health -- References -- 13: Pollution and Plants: Changing Policy Paradigms -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Air Pollution: A Stinking Killer -- 13.2.1 Transportation Sector -- 13.2.2 Domestic Sector -- 13.2.3 Industrial Sector -- 13.2.4 Energy Sector -- 13.3 Need for Policies for Plants -- 13.3.1 National Forest Policy, 1988 -- 13.3.1.1 Green Belts as Sinks of Gases -- 13.3.2 Green India Mission -- 13.3.3 Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) -- 13.3.4 Compensatory Afforestation -- 13.4 Changing Policy Paradigm -- 13.5 Conclusion -- References -- 14: Tropospheric O3: A Cause of Concern for Terrestrial Plants -- 14.1 Introduction. , 14.2 Ozone Formation -- 14.3 Variations in Ozone Concentrations: Present Scenario and Future Projections -- 14.3.1 Worldwide O3 Distribution -- 14.3.2 Ozone Concentration: An Indian Perspective -- 14.3.3 Future Projections in O3 Concentrations -- 14.4 Ozone-Generated Oxidative Stress and Related Responses -- 14.4.1 Ozone-Induced ROS Formation and Signal Transduction -- 14.4.2 ROS Detoxification Mechanisms: Antioxidative Defense Responses -- 14.5 Physiological Responses -- 14.5.1 Photosynthetic Rate, Stomatal Conductance, and Photosynthetic Efficiency -- 14.5.2 Photosynthetic Pigments -- 14.5.3 RuBisCO Content -- 14.5.4 Secondary Metabolism -- 14.6 Secondary Responses -- 14.6.1 Herbs, Grasses, and Native Species -- 14.6.2 Plant Communities -- 14.6.3 Change in Competitive Hierarchies -- 14.6.4 Changes in Forage Quality and Herbivory Pattern -- 14.6.5 Induction and Suppression of Pathogenicity -- 14.7 Yield Response -- 14.8 IPCC Projections for O3 Concentrations and Yield Losses -- 14.9 Conclusions -- References.