Note: Intro -- Environmental Impacts of Modern Agriculture -- Contents -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Modern Agriculture and Implications for Land Use and Management -- 1 Introduction and Overview -- 2 Agricultural Systems -- 3 Global and Regional Issues -- 3.1 Demand Side Factors -- 3.2 Supply Side Factors -- 4 Agricultural Land and the Role of Science and Technology -- 5 Case Study: UK Agriculture and Land Use -- 5.1 Trends in UK Agriculture -- 5.1.1 Agriculture's Contribution to UK Economy -- 5.1.2 Agricultural Land Use -- 5.1.3 Farm Size -- 5.1.4 Farm Yields -- 5.1.5 Agricultural Commodity Prices -- 5.1.6 UK Farm Incomes -- 5.1.7 Productivity of UK Farms -- 5.1.8 Demand for Food in the UK -- 5.1.9 Food Self-sufficiency and Food Security -- 6 Agriculture and Environment -- 7 Agriculture and Ecosystem Services -- 8 Agriculture and Climate Change -- 9 Agriculture and Energy -- 10 Future Prospects for Land Use in the UK -- 10.1 Scope to Release Land from Agricultural Production -- et al., 2005). -- 10.2 Technology Change and Land Use -- 11 Implications for Policy -- References -- Impacts of Agriculture upon Soil Quality -- 1 Introduction to Soil Quality -- 2 Soil Organic Matter Decline -- 3 Soil Compaction -- 4 Soil Erosion -- 5 Soil Biodiversity -- 6 Soil Contamination -- 6.1 Nutrients -- 6.2 Heavy Metals -- 6.3 Organic Pollutants -- 7 Soil Sealing -- 8 Soil Salinisation -- 9 Conclusions -- References -- Impacts of Agriculture upon Greenhouse Gas Budgets -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Current Agricultural Sources of Nitrous Oxide, Methane and Carbon Dioxide -- 2.1 Nitrous Oxide -- 2.2 Methane -- 2.3 Carbon Dioxide -- 3 International Reporting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions -- 3.1 Indirect Emissions - Is there a Gap between Top-down and Bottom-up Global Budgets? -- 4 Future Mitigation Strategies -- 4.1 Nitrous Oxide. , 4.1.1 Optimising Nitrogen Use by Crop Plants -- 4.1.2 Optimising Nitrogen Use by Livestock -- 4.1.3 Inhibitors -- 4.1.4 Soil Management and Tillage -- 4.1.5 Land Use Change -- 4.2 Methane -- 4.2.1 Methane from Ruminant Livestock -- 4.2.2 Dietary Opportunities -- 4.2.3 Avoiding Inefficiencies -- 4.2.4 Livestock Reduction or Replacements -- 4.2.5 Methane from Wetland Rice -- 4.3 Carbon Dioxide -- 4.4 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Potential: Combined Effects of all Gases -- 4.5 The Economics of Mitigation -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- Impacts of Agriculture on Water-borne Pathogens -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Policy Developments -- 3 Microbial Dynamics -- 3.1 Pathogens, Indicators and Health Risk -- 3.2 Catchment Microbial Flux -- 3.3 Flux Attenuation and Mitigation of Resource Impacts -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- Pesticides in Modern Agriculture -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Traditional Context of the Agricultural Uses of Pesticides -- 3 The Changing Nature of Pesticide Use from Earliest Agricultural Times to the Present Day -- 4 Risks to Human Health from Pesticide Use in Agriculture -- 5 Pesticide Use in Current Agricultural Systems - A Changing and Challenging Context -- 6 Future Pesticide Use and Approaches to their Regulation and Management -- References -- Balancing the Environmental Consequences of Agriculture with the Need for Food Security -- 1 Preamble -- 1.1 The Need for Food Security -- 1.2 The Importance of Environmental Sustainability and a Role for the UK -- 2 Agriculture's Environmental Impact and a Summary of the Issues -- 2.1 Some Terminology -- 2.2 Man-managed and Natural Ecosystems - Competition for Photosynthate -- 2.3 The Application of Science - Manipulating Genotype and Environment -- 2.4 Impacts from Fossil-fuel Use -- 2.5 Reactive Nitrogen -- 2.6 Water - Excess and Shortage -- 2.7 Contaminants and Pollutants. , 2.8 Avoiding Negative Environmental Consequences of Agricultural Practice - A Summary -- 3 Sustainable Intensi cation -- 3.1 Global Land Use -- 3.2 Anthromes and Anthropogenic Ecosystem Processes -- 3.3 Examples of Sustainable Intensi cation -- 3.4 Management of Biodiversity: Land Sharing or Land Sparing? -- 4 Land Use, Resource Management and Deliverables from Land -- 4.1 Understanding Interactions and Trade-offs -- 4.2 Units of Accounting -- 4.3 Some Examples of Trade-offs -- 5 A Systems-based Approach to GHG Balance -- 5.1 Agriculture as Part of the Problem and Part of the Solution -- 5.2 Fossil Fuel Substitution, Carbon Capture and Storage, Food Imports and the Cost of Valued Landscapes -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Positive and Negative Impacts of Agricultural Production of Liquid Biofuels -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Agricultural Production as Part of Biofuel Life Cycles and Life Cycle Assessment -- 3 Energy -- 3.1 Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency of Current Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels -- 3.2 Replacement of Fossil Fuels -- 3.3 Energetic Return on Investment (EROI) -- 4 Water Footprints of Current Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels -- 5 Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions and the Carbon Debt of Current Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels -- 6 Life Cycle Emissions of Pollutants Linked to Current Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels -- 7 Impact of Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels on Natural Ecosystems and Biodiversity -- 8 Effect of Current Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels on Food Prices and Hunger -- 9 Liquid Biofuels from Crop Residues -- 10 Conclusions -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Air Quality in Urban Environments -- Contents -- Urban Air Pollution Climates throughout the World -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Emission and Formation of Urban Air Pollution -- 1.2 Urban Pollution Levels and Indicators -- 2 Sources in the Vicinity of the City -- 3 Impact of the Geography, Topography and Meteorology -- 3.1 Geography -- 3.2 Topography -- 3.3 Meteorology -- 4 Pollutant Dispersion in Urban Streets (see also chapter by Salmond and McKendry) -- 5 Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution in Urban Areas (see also chapter by Bloss) -- 6 Particle Pollution in Urban Areas -- 6.1 Particle Mass Concentrations -- 6.2 Particle Number Concentrations -- 6.3 Importance of Measurement Location -- 6.4 Contribution from Natural Processes -- 7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in Urban Areas -- 7.1 Sources and Emissions -- 7.2 Sampling Artefacts -- 7.3 Long Range Transport -- 7.4 Future Requirements -- 8 Trace Elements, including Heavy Metals in Urban Areas -- 8.1 Heavy Metals -- 8.2 Trace Elements -- 8.3 Recommendations for Modelling -- 9 Conclusions -- References -- Influences of Meteorology on Air Pollution Concentrations and Processes in Urban Areas -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Polluted Urban Atmosphere -- 3 The Urban Canopy Layer -- 3.1 Emissions, Intra-Urban Variability and Data Sources -- 3.2 Flow Patterns within the Urban Canopy Layer -- 3.3 Street Canyons -- 3.4 Vertical Exchange Processes: Coupling the UCL to the UBL -- 4 Larger Scale Processes Affecting Urban Air Pollution -- 4.1 Mesoscale Flows -- 4.2 Regional Transport -- 4.3 Synoptic Scales -- 4.4 Global Scales and "Chemical Weather" -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Atmospheric Chemical Processes of Importance in Cities -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Emissions in the City Environment -- 3 Dynamic Considerations -- 4 Gas-phase Chemical Processing -- 4.1 NOx-Ozone Interactions. , 4.2 Oxidant Radicals and Ozone Production -- 4.3 Night-Time Processes -- 4.4 Timescales of Ozone Production -- 4.5 Analysis of Ozone Sources -- 4.6 Limits on Ozone Production: NOx-Limited and VOC-Limited -- 5 Modifications Particular to the Urban Environment -- 5.1 Radical Sources -- 5.2 VOC Speciation and Abundance -- 5.3 Primary Emissions of NO2 -- 6 Particulate Phase Chemistry -- 6.1 Chemical Composition -- 6.2 Secondary Particle Formation -- 6.3 Other Impacts of Aerosol -- 7 Modelling Urban Atmospheric Chemistry -- 8 Conclusions -- References -- Air Pollution in Underground Railway Systems -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Physical and Chemical Properties -- 2.1 Particle Mass and Number Concentrations -- 2.2 Time Variation -- 2.3 Chemical Composition -- 2.4 Size Distributions -- 2.5 Morphology and Speciation -- 3 Emission Sources -- 4 Consequences for Human Health -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Human Exposure: Indoor and Outdoor -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Characteristics of Outdoor and Indoor Exposure -- 2.1 Outdoor Exposure -- 2.2 Indoor Exposure -- 2.3 Time-Activity Patterns -- 2.4 Indoor-Outdoor Relationships -- 3 Exposure Assessment -- 3.1 Exposure Monitoring -- 3.1.1 Monitoring Networks -- 3.1.2 Personal Monitoring -- 3.1.3 Biomonitoring -- 3.2 Exposure Modelling -- 3.2.1 Proximity and Buffer Zone Models -- 3.2.2 Dispersion and Photochemical Air Quality Models -- 3.2.3 Geostatistical Interpolation and Land-Use Regression Models -- 3.2.4 Receptor-Oriented Models -- 3.2.5 Time-Activity (or Micro-Environmental) Modelling -- 3.3 Modelling Uncertainty -- 4 Evidence from Personal Exposure Surveys in Urban Areas -- 4.1 North American Studies -- 4.2 European Studies -- 5 Role of Exposure Assessment in Regulatory Control of Air Pollution -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Health Effects of Urban Pollution -- 1 Introduction. , 2 Exposure to Air Pollutants -- 3 Epidemiological Approaches -- 3.1 Time-Series Studies -- 3.2 Intervention Studies -- 3.3 Cohort Studies -- 4 Particulate Matter -- 5 Nitrogen Dioxide -- 6 Sulfur Dioxide -- 7 Ozone -- 8 Carbon Monoxide -- 9 Carcinogenic Air Pollutants found in Urban Areas -- References -- The Policy Response to Improving Urban Air Quality -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Policy and the Evidence Base after the Smog Episodes of 1952 and 1962 -- 3 The Development of Strategies in the UK and Europe -- 4 Policy Instruments which Reduce Emissions -- 5 Future Developments in Air Quality Management Policies -- 5.1 Exposure Reduction -- 5.2 Links and Co-benefits with Climate Change Policies -- Disclaimer -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Front Cover -- Highway Pollution -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Chapter 1. The Influence of Highway-Related Pollutants on Environmental Quality -- Chapter 2. Highway Pollutant Monitoring -- Chapter 3. Atmospheric Dispersion and Deposition Modelling -- Chapter 4. Highway Runoff Transport Modelling -- Chapter 5. Highway Runoff Quality, Environmental Impacts and Control -- Chapter 6. Quantitative Determination of Highway Emissions in the Air using Receptor Models -- Chapter 7. Human Health Effects of Highway-Related Pollutants -- Chapter 8. Effects of Highway Pollutants upon Terrestrial Ecosystems -- Chapter 9. Noise Pollution -- Chapter 10. The Development of Emission Control Technology for Motor Vehicles -- Chapter 11. Highway Runoff Quality Management by Real Time Control -- Chapter 12. Legislation Relating to Highway Pollution -- Appendix: Environmental Quality Standards -- Index.

Note: Understanding Our Environrment -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1 Introduction -- 1 The Environmental Sciences -- 2 The Chemicals of Interest -- 3 Units of Concentration -- 4 The Environment as a Whole -- 5 Bibliography -- Chapter 2 The Atmosphere -- 1 The Global Atmosphere -- 1.1 The Structure of the Atmosphere -- 1.1.1 Troposphere and Stratosphere -- 1.1.2 Atmospheric Circulation -- 1.1.3 The Boundary Layer -- 1.2 Greenhouse Gases and the Global Climate -- 1.2.1 The Global Energy Balance -- 1.2.2 The Carbon Dioxide Cycle -- 1.2.3 Global Warming -- 1.2.4 Climate Change -- 1.2.5 International Response -- 1.3 Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone -- 1.3.1 The Ozone Layer -- 1.3.2 Ozone Depletion -- 1.3.3 The Antarctic Ozone 'Hole' -- 1.3.4 Effects of International Control Measures -- 2 Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion of Pollutants -- 2.1 Wind Speed and Direction -- 2.2 Atmospheric Stability -- 2.2.1 The Lapse Rate -- 2.2.2 Temperature Inversions -- 2.3 Dispersion from Chimneys -- 2.3.1 Ground-level Concentrations -- 2.3.2 Plume Rise -- 2.3.3 Time Dependence of Average Concentrations -- 2.4 Mathematical Modelling of Dispersion -- 3 Emissions to Atmosphere and Air Quality -- 3.1 Natural Emissions -- 3.1.1 Introduction -- 3.1.2 Sulfur Species -- 3.1.3 Nitrogen Species -- 3.1.4 Hydrocarbons -- 3.2 Emissions of Primary Pollutants -- 3.2.1 Carbon Monoxide and Hydrocarbons -- 3.2.2 Nitrogen Oxides -- 3.2.3 Sulfur Dioxide -- 3.2.4 Particulate Matter -- 3.2.5 Emissions Limits -- 3.2.6 Emissions Inventories -- 3.3 Air Quality -- 3.3.1 Air Quality Standards -- 3.3.2 Air Quality Monitoring -- 3.3.3 Air Quality Trends -- 3.3.4 Vehicular Emissions-CO and Hydrocarbons -- 3.3.5 Nitrogen Oxides -- 3.3.6 Sulfur Oxides -- 3.3.7 Vehicular Particulates -- 3.3.8 Heavy Metals -- 3.3.9 Toxic Organic Micropollutants (TOMPS). , 4 Gas Phase Reactions and Photochemical Ozone -- 4.1 Gas Phase Chemistry in the Troposphere -- 4.1.1 Atmospheric Photochemistry and Oxidation -- 4.1.2 Ozone -- 4.2 Trends in Ozone Levels -- 5 Particles and Acid Deposition -- 5.1 Particle Formation and Properties -- 5.1.1 Particle Formation -- 5.1.2 Particle Composition -- 5.1.3 Deliquescent Behaviour -- 5.1.4 Optical Properties -- 5.2 Droplets and Aqueous Phase Chemistry -- 5.3 Deposition Mechanisms -- 5.3.1 Dry Deposition of Gases -- 5.3.2 Wet Deposition -- 5.3.3 Deposition of Particles -- 5.4 Acid Rain -- 5.4.1 Rainwater Composition -- 5.4.2 The Effects -- 5.4.3 Patterns of Deposition and Critical Loads Assessment -- Questions -- Chapter 3 Freshwaters -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Fundamentals of Aquatic Chemistry -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Concentration and Activity -- 2.1.2 Ionic Strength -- 2.1.3 Equilibria and Equilibrium Constants -- 2.2 Dissolution/Precipitation Reactions -- 2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Weathering Processes -- 2.2.2 Solubility -- 2.2.3 Influence of Organic Matter -- 2.3 Complexation Reactions in Freshwaters -- 2.3.1 Outer and Inner Sphere Complexes -- 2.3.2 Hydrolysis -- 2.3.3 Inorganic Complexes -- 2.3.4 Surface Complex Formation -- 2.3.5 Organic Complexes -- 2.4 Species Distribution in Freshwaters -- 2.4.1 pH as a Master Variable -- 2.4.2 Pε as a Master Variable -- 2.4.3 Pε - pH Relationships -- 2.5 Modelling Aquatic Systems -- 3 Case Studies -- 3.1 Acidification -- 3.1.1 Diatom Records -- 3.1.2 Aluminium -- 3.1.3 Acid Mine Drainage and Ochreous Deposits -- 3.1.4 Acid Mine Drainage and the Release of Heavy Metals -- 3.2 Metals in Water -- 3.2.1 Arsenic in Groundwater -- 3.2.2 Lead in Drinking Water -- 3.2.3 Cadmium in Irrigation Water -- 3.2.4 Selenium in Irrigation Water -- 3.2.5 Aquatic Contamination by Gold Ore Extractants. , 3.3 Historical Pollution Records and Perturbatory Processes in Lakes -- 3.3.1 Records-Lead in Lake Sediments -- 3.3.2 Perturbatory Processes in Lake Sediments -- 3.3.3 Onondaga Lake -- 3.4 Nutrients in Water and Sediments -- 3.4.1 Phosphorus and Eutrophication -- 3.4.2 Nitrate in Groundwater -- 3.5 Organic Matter and Organic Chemicals in Water -- 3.5.1 BOD and COD -- 3.5.2 Synthetic Organic Chemicals -- 4 Treatment -- 4.1 Purification of Water Supplies -- 4.2 Waste Treatment -- Questions -- Further Reading -- Chapter 4 The Oceanic Environment -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 The Ocean as a Biogeochemical Environment -- 1.2 Properties of Water and Seawater -- 1.3 Salinity Concepts -- 1.4 Oceanic Circulation -- 2 Seawater Composition and Chemistry -- 2.1 Major Constituents -- 2.2 Dissolved Gases -- 2.2.1 Gas Solubility and Air-Sea Exchange Processes -- 2.2.2 Oxygen -- 2.2.3 Carbon Dioxide and Alkalinity -- 2.2.4 Dimethyl Sulfide and Climatic Implications -- 2.3 Nutrients -- 2.4 Trace Elements -- 2.5 Physico-chemical Speciation -- 3 Suspended Particles and Marine Sediments -- 3.1 Description of Sediments and Sedimentary Components -- 3.2 Surface Chemistry of Particles -- 3.2.1 Surface Charge -- 3.2.2 Adsorption Processes -- 3.2.3 Ion Exchange Reactions -- 3.2.4 Role of Surface Chemistry in Biogeochemical Cycling -- 3.3 Diagenesis -- 4 Physical and Chemical Processes in Estuaries -- 5 Marine Contamination and Pollution -- 5.1 Oil Slicks -- 5.2 Plastic Debris -- 5.3 Tributyltin -- Questions -- Chapter 5 Land Contamination and Reclamation -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Soil: Its Formation, Constituents, and Properties -- 2.1 Soil Formation -- 2.2 Soil Constituents -- 2.2.1 The Mineral Fraction -- 2.2.2 Soil Organic Matter -- 2.3 Soil Properties -- 2.3.1 Soil Permeability -- 2.3.2 Soil Chemical Properties -- 2.3.3 Adsorption and Decomposition of Organic Containments. , 3 Sources of Land Contaminants -- 4 Characteristics of Some Major Groups of Land Contaminants -- 4.1 Heavy Metals -- 4.2 Organic Contaminants -- 4.3 Sewage Sludge -- 5 Possible Hazards from Contaminated Land -- 6 Methods of Site Investigation -- 7 Interpretation of Site Investigation Data -- 8 Reclamation of Contaminated Land -- 8.1 Ex Situ Methods -- 8.1.1 'Dig and Dump' -- 8.1.2 Soil Cleaning -- 8.2 In Situ Methods -- 8.2.1 Physico-chemical Methods -- 8.2.2 Biological Methods -- 8..3 Specific Techniques for Gasworks Sites -- 9 Case Studies -- 9.1 Gasworks Sites -- 9.2 Soil Contamination by Landfilling and Waste Disposal -- 9.3 Heavy Metal Contamination from Metalliferous Mining and Smelting -- 9.4 Heavy Metal Contamination of Domestic Garden Soils in Urban Areas -- 9.5 Land Contamination by Solvents, PCBs, and Dioxins Following a Fire at an Industrial Plant -- 10 Conclusions -- Questions -- Chapter 6 Environmental Cycling of Pollutants -- 1 Introduction: Biogeochemical Cycling -- 1.1 Environmental Reservoirs -- 1.2 Lifetimes -- 1.2.1 Influence of Lifetime on Environmental Behaviour -- 2 Rates of Transfer Between Environmental Compartments -- 2.1 Air-Land Exchange -- 2.2 Air-Sea Exchange -- 3 Transfers in Aquatic Systems -- 4 Biogeochemical Cycles -- 4.1 Case Study 1: The Biogeochemical Cycle of Nitrogen -- 4.2 Case Study 2: Aspects of the Biogeochemical Cycle of Lead -- 5 Environmental Partitioning of Long-lived Species -- Questions -- Chapter 7 Environmental Monitoring Strategies -- 1 Objectives of Monitoring -- 2 Types of Monitoring -- 2.1 Source Monitoring -- 2.1.1 General Objectives -- 2.1.2 Stationary Source Sampling for Gaseous Emissions -- 2.1.3 Mobile Source Sampling for Gaseous Effluents -- 2.1.4 Source Monitoring for Liquid Effluents -- 2.1.5 Source Monitoring for Solid Effluents -- 2.2 Ambient Environment Monitoring. , 2.2.1 General Objectives -- 2.2.2 Ambient Air Monitoring -- 2.2.3 Environmental Water Monitoring -- 2.2.4 Sediment, Soil, and Biological Monitoring -- 3 Sampling Methods -- 3.1 Air Sampling Methods -- 3.1.1 Intake Design -- 3.1.2 Sample Collection -- 3.1.3 Flow Measurement and Air Moving Devices -- 3.2 Water Sampling Methods -- 3.3 Soil and Sediment Sampling Methods -- 4 Modelling of Environmental Dispersion -- 4.1 Atmospheric Dispersal -- 4.2 Aquatic Mixing -- 4.3 Variability in Soil and Sediment Pollutant Levels -- 5 Duration and Extent of Survey -- 5.1 Duration of Survey and Frequency of Sampling -- 5.2 Methods of Reducing Sampling Frequency -- 5.3 Number of Sampling Sites -- 6 Prerequisites for Monitoring -- 6.1 Monitoring Protocol -- 6.2 Meteorological Data -- 6.3 Source Inventory -- 6.4 Suitability of Analytical Techniques -- 6.5 Environmental Quality Standards -- 7 Remote Sensing of Pollutant -- 8 Presentation of Data -- Questions -- Chapter 8 Ecological and Health Effects of Chemical Pollution -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Toxicity: Exposure-Response Relationships -- 3 Exposure -- 4 Absorption -- 5 Internal Pathways -- 6 Ecological Risk Assessment -- 7 Individuals, Populations, and Communities and the Role of Biomarkers -- 8 Health Effects of the Major Air Pollutants -- 9 Effect of Air Pollution on Plants -- 10 Ecological Effects of Acid Deposition -- 11 Forest Decline -- 12 Effects of Pollutants on Reproduction and Development: Evidence of Endocrine Disruption -- 12.1 Eggshell Thinning -- 12.2 GLEMEDS -- 12.3 Marine Mammals -- 12.4 Imposex in Gastropods -- 12.5 Endocrine Disruptors -- 13 Hydrocarbons in the Marine Environment -- 14 Health Effects of Metal Pollution -- 14.1 Mercury -- 14.2 Lead -- 15 Conclusion -- Questions -- Chapter 9 Managing Environmental Quality -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Objectives, Standards, and Limits. , 2.1 Environmental Objectives.

Note: Marine Pollution and Human Health -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Marine Environment and Human Health: An Overview -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Conceptual Framework -- 3 Issues addressed in this Book -- 3.1 Pathogens -- 3.2 Pollutants -- 3.3 Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) -- 3.4 Public Health and Wellbeing -- 3.5 Scientific Challenges and Policy Needs -- 4 Towards a Systems Approach -- References -- Waterborne Pathogens -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Human Pathogens in the Marine Environment -- 2.1 Pathogens Introduced to the Oceans -- 2.2 Pathogens Indigenous to the Oceans -- 2.3 Differentiating Pathogenic from Non-Pathogenic Microbes -- 2.4 Pathogen Distribution -- 2.5 Pathogen Detection -- 3 Fecal Indicator Bacteria -- 3.1 Development and Usage -- 3.2 Limitations -- 4 Alternative Measures of Microbial Quality -- 4.1 The Ideal Indicator -- 4.2 Alternative Indicators -- 4.3 Microbial Source Tracking -- 5 Molecular Methods: A Revolution in Detection Technologies -- 6 Epidemiological Studies: Linking Microbial Measures to Human Health -- 7 Modeling Pathogens in Marine Waters -- 7.1 Modeling Aquatic Pathogens: The Example of Vibrios -- 7.2 Coupling Modeling and Remote Sensing -- 7.3 Use of Models in Management: Fecal Indicator Bacteria -- 8 The Future of Beach Regulation -- References -- Estuarine and Marine Pollutants -- 1 Context -- 2 Public Perception -- 3 Priority Substances and Legislation -- 4 Emerging Contaminants -- 4.1 Industrial Emerging Contaminants -- 4.2 Other Emerging Contaminants -- 5 Nanoparticles -- 5.1 Sources and Environmental Behaviour -- 6 Plastics -- 7 Complex Mixtures: Causality of Effects -- 8 Climate Change and Pollutants -- 9 Future Issues -- References -- Harmful Algal Blooms -- 1 Phytoplankton -- 1.1 Harmful Phytoplankton -- 1.2 Mechanisms of Harm to Human Health -- 1.3 The Scale of the Problem -- 2 Human Health Syndromes. , 2.1 Shellfish Poisoning -- 2.2 Causative Organisms and Toxins -- 2.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) -- 2.2.2 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) -- 2.2.3 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) -- 2.2.4 Other Lipophilic Shellfish Toxins (LSTs) -- 2.2.5 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) -- 2.3 Respiratory Illness -- 2.4 Fish Vectored Illness -- 2.5 Cyanobacteria -- 2.6 The Role of Harmful Phytoplankton in Influencing Human Wellbeing -- 2.6.1 Microflagellates -- 2.6.2 Other Dinoflagellates -- 2.6.3 Diatoms -- 3 Harmful Algal Blooms in UK Coastal Waters -- 3.1 Shellfish Poisoning -- 3.1.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) -- 3.1.2 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) -- 3.1.3 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) -- 3.1.4 Azaspiracid Poisoning (AZP) -- 3.2 Other Harmful Phytoplankton in UK Waters -- 3.2.1 Karenia mikimotoi -- 3.2.2 Other Dinoflagellates -- 3.2.3 Phaeocystis -- 3.2.4 Microflagellates -- 3.2.5 Diatoms and Silicoflagellates -- 3.2.6 Other Species of Pelagic Microplankton -- 4 Safeguarding Health -- 4.1 Monitoring -- 4.2 Are Algal Toxins a Public Health Problem? -- 4.3 Early Warning Methodologies and Mitigation -- 4.4 Introductions and Transfers of New Species -- 4.5 Climate Change -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Scientific Challenges and Policy Needs -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Key Science Challenges for Marine Environment and Human Health -- 2.1 Linking Ecosystem Integrity, Ecosystem Services and Human Health -- 2.2 Sustainable Industrial Development -- 2.3 Understanding and Mitigating the Impacts of Climate Change -- 2.4 Better Prediction Systems for Natural Disasters -- 2.5 Understanding the Distribution and Risks of Marine Biogenic Toxins (Algal Toxins) -- 2.6 Identifying and Reducing Viral and Bacterial Pathogens from Sewage and Agricultural Run-Off. , 2.7 Understanding Emerging Risks (e.g. Nanoparticulates from Industrial and Domestic Use) -- 2.8 Conventional Chemical Inputs (Industrial, Domestic, Agricultural and Road Run-Off), including Personal Care Products, Disinfectants, Pharmaceuticals, Novel Chemicals and Radionuclides -- 2.9 Endocrine Disruption -- 2.10 Pharmaceuticals from the Sea -- 2.11 The Marine Environment as a Health and Wellbeing Resource: the 'Blue Gym' Effect -- 3 Public Health Needs -- 3.1 Health-Related Indices of Environmental Impact -- 3.2 Seafood Safety -- 3.3 Environmental, Social and Economic Interactions (Quality of Governance, Overpopulation and Sustaining Critical Coastal Ecosystems) -- 3.4 Modelling - Need for an Integrated Approach in the Development of Effective Environmental and Public Health Policies on a Regional and Global Scale -- 4 Policy Needs -- 5 Discussion -- 6 Conclusions and Recommendations -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Cover -- Preface -- Preface to the Second Edition -- Editors -- Contents -- Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Legislative Influences on Electronics Recycling -- 1.2.1 Producer Responsibility Legislation -- 1.2.2 The WEEE Directive -- 1.2.3 The RoHS Directive -- 1.2.4 Other Examples of Legislation -- 1.3 Treatment Options for WEEE -- 1.3.1 Background -- 1.3.2 Material Composition of WEEE -- 1.4 Recent and Emerging WEEE Challenges -- 1.4.1 Critical Raw Materials -- 1.4.2 Changes in Lighting Technology -- 1.4.3 Photovoltaic Panels -- 1.4.4 Printed Electronics and Additive Manufacturing -- 1.4.5 Batteries -- 1.4.6 Socioeconomic Factors -- 1.5 Logistics of WEEE -- 1.6 WEEE - A European Perspective -- 1.7 Barriers to Recycling of WEEE -- 1.8 The Recycling Hierarchy and Markets for Recyclate -- 1.9 WEEE Health and Safety Implications -- 1.10 Future Factors That May Influence Electronic Waste Management -- 1.11 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2 Materials Used in Manufacturing Electrical and Electronic Products -- 2.1 Current Perspective -- 2.2 Impact of Legislation on Materials Used in Electronics -- 2.2.1 Overview -- 2.2.2 The RoHS2 Directive and Proscribed Materials -- 2.2.3 Where Do RoHS Proscribed Materials Occur? -- 2.3 Soldering and the Move to Lead-free Assembly -- 2.3.1 Introduction -- 2.3.2 Lead-free Solder Choices -- 2.4 Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Materials -- 2.4.1 Introduction -- 2.4.2 PCB Materials -- 2.4.3 Provision of Flame Retardancy in PCBs -- 2.4.4 Non-ferrous and Precious Metals -- 2.5 Encapsulants of Electronic Components -- 2.6 Indium Tin Oxide and Liquid Crystal Display Screens -- 2.7 Polymeric Materials in Enclosures, Casings and Panels -- 2.7.1 Polycarbonate -- 2.7.2 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) -- 2.7.3 High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS) -- 2.7.4 Polyphenyleneoxide (PPO). , 2.7.5 PC/ABS Blends -- 2.8 Critical Raw Materials -- 2.8.1 Gallium -- 2.8.2 Cobalt -- 2.8.3 Tantalum -- 2.8.4 Indium -- 2.8.5 Antimony -- 2.8.6 Silicon -- 2.8.7 Critical Raw Materials and New Developments in Electronics -- 2.9 Materials Composition of WEEE -- 2.9.1 Introduction -- 2.9.2 Mobile Phones -- 2.9.3 Televisions -- 2.9.4 Washing Machines -- 2.10 Summary and Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 3 A Circular Economy for Consumer Electronics -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Addressing Waste: A Wealth of Opportunities -- 3.3 The Circular Economy Framework -- 3.3.1 Principles -- 3.3.2 A Vision for Circular Consumer Electronics -- 3.4 The Road to Circularity -- 3.4.1 Design to Keep Products, Components and Materials in Use for Longer -- 3.4.2 Enhance Reverse Logistics,Remanufacturing, Parts Harvesting and Recycling Processes -- 3.4.3 Put in Place the Right Enabling Conditions -- 3.5 Harnessing New Digital Technologies to Catalyse the Transition -- 3.5.1 Intelligent Assets and Enabling Technologies -- 3.5.2 Artificial Intelligence and the Circular Economy -- 3.6 Closing Considerations -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 4 An Overview of Electronic Waste Management in the UK -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Legislative Background -- 4.3 Product Categories -- 4.4 The WEEE Management System -- 4.5 Targets and Fees -- 4.6 EEE and WEEE Arisings -- 4.7 Collection Pathways and Fate of WEEE -- 4.8 Recycling of WEEE -- 4.8.1 Recovery of CRMs -- 4.8.2 Processing and Technologies -- 4.8.3 Operating Standards -- 4.9 Reuse of WEEE -- 4.9.1 Value of Reuse -- 4.9.2 Potential for Reuse -- 4.9.3 Pathways for Reuse -- 4.10 Market Demand -- 4.11 Barriers and Measures to Increase the Reuse of WEEE -- 4.11.1 Barriers -- 4.11.2 Design for Disassembly and Repair -- 4.11.3 Setting Targets for Reuse -- 4.11.4 Fostering Dialogue Across the Supply Chain. , 4.11.5 Improving the Marketability of Reusable WEEE -- 4.12 Prospects -- References -- Chapter 5 Management of Electronic Waste in Africa -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Sources of E-waste -- 5.2.1 Introduction -- 5.2.2 Nigeria -- 5.2.3 Kenya -- 5.2.4 South Africa -- 5.2.5 Synthesis -- 5.3 Collection and Management of E- waste -- 5.3.1 Collection of E-waste -- 5.3.2 Management of E-waste -- 5.4 Environmental and Health Impacts -- 5.4.1 Overview -- 5.4.2 Environmental Impacts -- 5.4.3 Health Impacts -- 5.5 Socio-economic Impact of E-waste Management -- 5.6 Governance Issues in E-waste Management -- 5.7 Effective Business Models for Sound Management of E-waste in Africa -- 5.7.1 The Basel Convention Project -- 5.7.2 Best of Two Worlds -- 5.7.3 A Producers' Model for the Future -- 5.7.4 Hinckley Recycling -- 5.8 Recommendations for Environmentally Sound Management of E-waste in Africa -- References -- Chapter 6 Electronic Waste Management in the Asia Pacific Region -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Collection Systems and Refurbishment -- 6.3 E-waste Generation, Management and Governance -- 6.3.1 Australia -- 6.3.2 China -- 6.3.3 Indonesia -- 6.3.4 India -- 6.3.5 The Philippines -- 6.3.6 Vietnam -- 6.3.7 Malaysia -- 6.3.8 Japan -- 6.3.9 Pakistan -- 6.4 Transboundary Movement of E-waste in the Asia-Pacific -- 6.4.1 A Global Issue -- 6.4.2 China -- 6.4.3 Indonesia -- 6.4.4 Vietnam -- 6.4.5 The Philippines -- 6.4.6 Malaysia -- 6.4.7 Australia -- 6.4.8 Japan -- 6.4.9 Thailand -- 6.4.10 Singapore -- 6.4.11 Republic of Korea -- 6.4.12 India -- 6.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 7 Traceability of Electronic Waste Using Blockchain Technology -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Overview of Blockchain -- 7.2.1 Principles -- 7.2.2 Blockchain Use Cases -- 7.2.3 Blockchain in Supply Chain Management -- 7.3 Blockchain Technology and WEEE Management. , 7.3.1 Legal and Regulatory Obligations -- 7.3.2 New Business Models -- 7.4 Future Trends and Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 8 Electronics: A Broken Story about Production and Consumption -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.1.1 Measuring Economic, Social and Environmental Impact -- 8.2 Electronics Production: The Role of Companies -- 8.2.1 Background -- 8.2.2 Product Planning, Design and Engineering -- 8.2.3 Procurement, Manufacturing and Logistics -- 8.2.4 Marketing and Sales -- 8.2.5 Service, Recycling and Disposal -- 8.3 Electronics Consumption: The Role of Consumers -- 8.3.1 Need Recognition/Inspiration -- 8.3.2 Information Searches, Evaluation and Purchase -- 8.3.3 Usage, Recycling and Disposal -- 8.4 Discussion and Implementation -- 8.4.1 Companies -- 8.4.2 Consumers -- 8.4.3 Policymakers -- References -- Chapter 9 The Recycling of Lithium-ion Batteries: Current and Potential Approaches -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Waste and Redundancy Issues of Exhausted Batteries -- 9.3 EU Legislation -- 9.3.1 Directives and Regulations -- 9.3.2 Targets -- 9.4 UK Legislation -- 9.4.1 Relevant Regulations -- 9.4.2 Producer Responsibility -- 9.4.3 Obligations of Retailers Selling Portable Batteries -- 9.4.4 Duty of Care and Waste Classification -- 9.4.5 Other Relevant Legislation -- 9.4.6 Safe Transportation -- 9.5 Waste Battery Treatment Options -- 9.5.1 Prevention -- 9.5.2 Reuse/Reconfiguration -- 9.5.3 Recycling -- 9.5.4 Application of Recycling Technologies -- 9.5.5 Examples of Hydrometallurgical Approaches -- 9.5.6 Global Recycling Overview -- 9.5.7 Disposal -- 9.6 Proposed Hydrometallurgical Approaches -- 9.6.1 Pre-commercial Approaches -- 9.6.2 Commercial Approaches -- 9.7 Funded Projects -- 9.7.1 UK Battery Funded Projects -- 9.7.2 EU Battery Funded Projects -- 9.7.3 Potential Impacts of EU Funding -- 9.8 Conclusions -- References. , Chapter 10 Environmentally Sustainable Solvent-based Process Chemistry for Metals in Printed Circuit Boards -- 10.1 Introduction and Overview -- 10.2 DESs as Alternative Solvents for PCB Coatings -- 10.2.1 Electrolytic Coatings from DES -- 10.2.2 Galvanic Immersion Coatings -- 10.3 DESs in PCB Assembly and Process Control -- 10.3.1 Soldering -- 10.3.2 Surface-mount Assembly -- 10.3.3 A New Solderable Surface Finish -- 10.3.4 Process Control and Analysis -- 10.4 Waste Processing and Metal Recovery -- 10.5 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 11 Plastics in Electronic Waste: Results from the PolyCE Project -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 PolyCE project: Objectives and Methodology -- 11.3 PolyCE Circular Business Models -- 11.3.1 Business Model Characterisation -- 11.3.2 Dematerialisation Models, Opportunities and Barriers -- 11.4 The WEEE Plastics Value Chain -- 11.4.1 The Role of Stakeholders -- 11.4.2 WEEE Recycling Processes -- 11.5 Material Flow and Mass Balance: Current Situation -- 11.5.1 PCR Plastic Availability -- 11.6 Closing the Loop: the ReValue Model -- 11.6.1 Supply and Demand -- 11.6.2 Material Flow and Mass Balance Considerations -- 11.7 Barriers and Challenges to Adopting the ReValue Model -- 11.8 Large Scale Demonstrator Prototypes -- 11.8.1 Aims and Objectives -- 11.8.2 Demonstrator 1: Cooling and Freezing Appliances -- 11.8.3 Demonstrator 2: Large Household Appliances -- 11.8.4 Demonstrator 3: Small Household Appliances -- 11.9 Summary and Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Ecosystem Services -- Contents -- An Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity in Europe -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Why this Topic Matters Now -- 1.2 The Current Assessment -- 2 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services -- 2.1 Ecosystem Services -- 2.2 Relationships between Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services -- 2.3 Land Use and Multiple Services -- 3 European Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services -- 4 Managing Ecosystem Services in Europe -- 4.1 How Ecosystems Respond to Change -- 4.2 Threats to Biodiversity, and Consequences for Ecosystem Services in the European Union -- 4.3 Methods of Valuing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services -- 4.4 Prioritising Ecosystem Services in Land Management: Weighing up Alternative Land Uses -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- Ecosystem Services and Policy: A Review of Coastal Wetland Ecosystem Services and an Efficiency-Based Framework for Implementing the Ecosystem Approach -- 1 Ecosystem Services and the Ecosystem Approach to Policy -- 2 Existing Frameworks for Understanding Ecosystem Services -- 3 Coastal Wetlands: Ecosystems on the Front Line of Global Change -- 4 Defining Coastal Wetlands -- 5 Ecosystem Services from Coastal Wetlands -- 6 Management to Combat Environmental Change and Threats to Coastal Wetlands -- 7 A New Conceptual Framework to Underpin the Ecosystem Approach -- 8 Conclusions and Future Challenges -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Ecosystem Services and Food Production -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Ecosystem Services Important for Food Production -- 2.1 A Conceptual Framework -- 2.2 Ecosystem Services -- 3 The Impact of Food Production on Ecosystems -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- Atmospheric Services -- 1 Introduction: The Atmosphere as Part of the Earth System -- 2 Ecosystem Services versus Atmospheric Services. , 3 The Atmosphere as both a Resource and a Hazard -- 4 Who Owns the Atmosphere? -- 5 The Valuation of Atmospheric Services -- 5.1 An Estimate of the Total Economic Value of Atmospheric Services -- 6 Atmospheric Services and Natural Capital -- 6.1 The Air that We Breathe -- 6.2 Protection from Extra-Terrestial Radiation Plasma and Meteors -- 6.3 Natural Global Warming -- 6.4 Cleansing Capacity and the Dispersion of Air Pollution -- 6.5 Clouds and the Hydrological Cycle -- 6.6 Direct Use of the Atmosphere for Ecosystems and Agriculture -- 6.7 The Combustion of Fuel -- 6.8 Air Transport, Communications and Sound -- 6.9 Direct and Indirect Use of the Atmosphere for Energy and Power -- 6.10 The Extraction of Atmospheric Gases -- 6.11 Atmospheric Recreation and Climate Tourism -- 6.12 Aesthetic, Spiritual and Sensual Properties -- 7 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services: The Ecological Foundation of Human Society -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Societal Dependence on Ecosystems in Different Socio-Economic Contexts -- 3 Understanding the Links between Ecosystems and Human Well-Being -- 3.1 Ecosystem Structure and Functioning -- 3.2 Ecosystem Functions -- 3.3 Ecosystem Services -- 3.4 Ecosystem Benefits and Human Well-Being -- 4 Accounting and Valuation of Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services -- 4.1 Approaches Based on Human Preferences -- 4.2 Approaches Based on Physical Costs -- 5 Discussion and Conclusions -- 5.1 The Controversy of Value Commensurability -- 5.2 Why Use the Notion of Natural Capital? -- References -- Protecting Water Resources and Health by Protecting the Environment: A Case Study -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Environmental Obligations on Water Utilities -- 2.1 Discharge Consents have Tightened -- 2.2 Review of Discharge Consents due to EU Directives -- 2.3 Prohibition of 'Dumping' Sewage at Sea. , 3 How Water Utilities meet their Environmental Obligations -- 4 A More Sustainable Ecosystem-Based Approach for the Future -- 5 The Wessex Water Experience with Catchment Management -- 5.1 Identification of Catchment and Farms -- 5.2 Actions Taken with the Farmer to Reduce Pollution -- 5.3 Monitoring of Improvements -- 6 Advantages of the Catchment Management Approach -- 7 Other Examples of an Ecosystem Approach -- 8 Conclusions -- References -- Life Cycle Assessment as a Tool for Sustainable Management of Ecosystem Services -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Life Cycle Thinking and Life Cycle Assessment -- 2.1 LCA Methodology: An Overview -- 3 LCA as a Tool for Sustainable Management of Ecosystem Services -- 3.1 Life Cycle Impacts of Energy: The Electricity Sector -- 3.2 Life Cycle Impacts of Transport -- 3.3 Life Cycle Impacts of Industry: The Example of the Chemical Sector -- 3.4 Life Cycle Impacts in the Food Sector -- Conclusions -- Appendix 1 CML 2 Method: Definition of Environmental Impact Categories -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Geoengineering of the Climate System -- Contents -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Why do we need Solutions to Global Warming? -- 1 Introduction - Life and the Evolution of the Earth's Atmosphere -- 2 The Atmosphere - The Most Valuable Resource on the Planet -- 3 The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming -- 4 What is Geoengineering? -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Are there Parallels to Climate Change and Geoengineering? -- 4.3 Scientific Respectability of Geoengineering -- 4.4 The Arguments for and against Geoengineering Research -- 5 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Storing Carbon for Geologically Long Timescales to Engineer Climate -- 1 Why is Carbon Storage Necessary? -- 2 The Approach and Controlling Factors -- 3 Methods of Reduced Emission Rates -- 4 Principles of Carbon Dioxide Removal (Negative Emissions Technologies) -- 5 Life-cycle Assessments -- 6 Biomass Availability and Sustainability -- 7 Carbon Dioxide Storage Availability -- 8 Summary of Carbon Storage Methods -- 8.1 Increased Terrestrial Biomass: Afforestation -- 8.2 Increased Soil Biomass: Biochar -- 8.3 Biomass Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) -- 8.4 Biomass Burial, Carbon Dioxide Use and Algal Carbon Dioxide Capture -- 8.5 Direct Air Capture -- 8.6 Silicate Weathering -- 8.7 Chemical Feedstock -- 8.8 Carbon Dioxide for Enhanced Oil Recovery (CO2-EOR) -- 8.9 Deep Sea Sediments -- 9 Discussion -- 10 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- The Global Potential for Carbon Dioxide Removal -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Plant-based CDR -- 2.1 Resource Supplies -- 2.2 Afforestation and Reforestation -- 2.3 Bioenergy Crop Supplies -- 2.4 Additional Biomass Supplies -- 2.5 Conversion Routes and Efficiencies -- 2.6 Combined CDR Potential -- 3 Algal-based CDR -- 3.1 Resource Supplies -- 3.2 Algal BECCS -- 3.3 Ocean Fertilisation -- 3.4 Combined CDR Potential. , 4 Alkalinity-based CDR -- 4.1 Enhanced Weathering - Land -- 4.2 Enhanced Weathering - Ocean -- 4.3 Direct Air Capture (DAC) -- 4.4 Combined CDR Potential -- 5 Overall CDR Flux Potential -- 6 Discussion -- References -- The Use of Artificial Trees -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Air Capture as an Engineering and Policy Challenge -- 3 An Example of an Air Capture Technology -- 4 Cost Issues -- 5 What Price can Air Capture Technology Deliver? -- 6 The Usefulness of Air Capture Technology -- 6.1 Carbon Capture from Air and Storage -- 6.2 Fugitive Emissions -- 6.3 Risk Management to Oil Resource Holders -- 6.4 Managing the Risks of Global Warming -- 6.5 Air Capture as a Tool for Geoengineering -- 6.6 Closing the Non-fossil Carbon Cycle -- 7 Discussion and Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Cooling the Earth with Crops -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Mechanisms -- 2.1 Biogeophysical Mechanisms -- 2.1.1 Albedo -- 2.1.2 Evapotranspiration -- 2.1.3 Emissivity -- 2.1.4 The Aerodynamic Roughness -- 3 Geographical Differences -- 3.1 Tropics -- 3.2 Temperate and Boreal -- 4 Historical Land Cover Change -- 5 Future Land Cover Change -- 6 Increased Crop Albedo -- 6.1 Albedo Values of Crops -- 6.2 Determinants of Albedo -- 6.3 Leaf Level Albedo -- 6.4 Canopy Level Albedo -- 7 Simulations with Climate Models -- 7.1 Crops in Climate Models -- 7.2 Climate Impacts -- 8 Yields -- 9 Other Crop Cooling Potential -- 9.1 Soil Carbon Sequestration -- 9.2 Biofuels -- 10 Priorities for Future Work -- 11 Conclusions -- References -- Engineering Ideas for Brighter Clouds -- 1 Introduction -- 2 A Reminder of the Physics -- 3 The Main Engineering Problems -- 3.1 Spray Generation -- 4 The Wafer -- 5 Filtration -- 6 Vessel Design -- 7 Justification of the Trimaran Configuration -- 8 Digital Hydraulics -- 9 The Mathematics -- 10 Costs -- 11 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References. , Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering -- 1 Introduction -- 2 How to Create a Stratospheric Cloud -- 2.1 Why the Stratosphere? -- 2.2 Means of Stratospheric Injection -- 2.3 Creating an Effective Sulfuric Acid Cloud -- 3 Climate Impacts of Stratospheric Geoengineering -- 3.1 Climate Models -- 3.2 Scenarios of Geoengineering -- 3.3 Global and Regional Temperature Impacts -- 3.4 Global and Regional Precipitation and Monsoon Impacts -- 3.5 Impacts of Enhanced Diffuse Radiation -- 4 Ethics and Governance of Stratospheric Geoengineering -- 4.1 Ethics and Governance of Research -- 4.2 Ethics and Governance of Deployment -- 5 Benefits and Risks of Stratospheric Geoengineering -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Space-Based Geoengineering Solutions -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Space-based Geoengineering -- 3 Lagrange Point Occulting Disks -- 3.1 Occulting Solar Disks -- 3.2 Occulter Orbit -- 3.3 Occulter Sizing -- 4 Lagrange Point Dust Cloud -- 4.1 Dissipating Dust Cloud -- 4.1.1 Solar Radiation Pressure -- 4.1.2 Dust Cloud Attenuation -- 4.1.3 Insolation Reduction -- 4.2 Anchored Dust Cloud -- 4.2.1 Four-body Problem -- 4.2.2 Zero Velocity Curve -- 4.2.3 Effect on Solar Insolation -- 5 Optimal Configuration for Lagrange Point Occulting Disks -- 5.1 GREB Climate Models -- 5.2 Out-of-plane Occulter -- 5.3 Optimal Orbiting Disk -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Solar Radiation Management and the Governance of Hubris -- 1 Introduction: Hubris, Piety and the Limits of Human Governance -- 2 SRM as Political Artefact -- 3 SRM Research and Attempts to Legitimate it as an Object of Governance -- 3.1 The Royal Society 2009 Report -- 3.2 Development of Normative Principles for Governing SRM Research -- 3.3 The Solar Radiation Management Governance Initiative (SRMGI) -- 3.4 Thresholds and 'Differentiated Governance'. , 4 From Saying to Doing: Governing SRM Research within a Framework for Responsible Innovation -- 5 A Social Licence to Operate? -- 5.1 Conditionality and Implausibility -- 6 Conclusions: Governing a New End of History? -- Appendix -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Cover -- Contents -- Preface -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Emissions of Primary Particulate Matter -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Source Categories -- 2.1 Residential Combustion -- 2.2 Road Transport -- 2.3 Energy and Manufacturing Industries -- 2.4 Maritime Traffic -- 2.5 Agricultural Activities -- 2.6 Natural Sources -- 3 Particle Size Distribution -- 4 Speciation -- 4.1 PM Speciation Source Profiles -- 5 European PM Emission Inventories -- 6 Long-term Trends in Europe -- 7 Regulations and Mitigation Measures -- 7.1 Eco-design Directive -- 7.2 Diesel Vehicle Emission Standards and Abatement Technologies -- 7.3 Urban Access Regulations -- 7.4 MARPOL Convention -- References -- Where Did This Particle Come From? Sources of Particle Number and Mass for Human Exposure Estimates -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Background -- 3 Particle Mass Concentrations -- 4 Particle Number Concentrations -- 4.1 New-particle Formation -- 4.2 Primary Particle Number Emissions -- 4.3 Primary Emissions vs. New-particle Formation -- 4.4 Issues of Scale -- 5 Implications for Human Exposure -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Source Apportionment: Principles and Methods -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Diurnal, Spatial, and Chemical Patterns Indicate PM Origins -- 3 Solutions to the CMB Equations -- 4 CMB Model Assumptions and Effects of Deviations -- 5 More Information from Existing Samples -- 6 How to Judge a Source Apportionment Study -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Case Studies of Source Apportionment from North America -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Historic Development -- 3 Applications -- 3.1 Chemical Mass Balance -- 3.2 Unmix -- 3.3 Positive Matrix Factorization -- 4 Advanced Model Applications -- 4.1 Constrained Models -- 4.2 Multiple Sample Type Data -- 4.3 Time Synchronization Model -- 4.4 Spatially Distributed Data -- 4.5 Mixed Way Data -- 4.6 Size-Composition-Time Data. , 5 Summary -- References -- Case Studies of Source Apportionment and Suggested Measures at Southern European Cities -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods -- 2.1 PM Sampling and Measurements -- 2.2 Sample Treatment and Analysis -- 2.3 Source Apportionment -- 3 Results -- 3.1 PM Levels and Seasonality -- 3.2 PM Chemical Characterization -- 3.3 PM Mass Closure -- 3.4 PM Source Apportionment -- 4 Comparison Among Case Study Cities -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- PM10 Source Apportionment in Five North Western European Cities-Outcome of the Joaquin Project -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Site Description and Chemical Characterisation of PM10 -- 2.1 Sites -- 2.2 PM10 Sampling and Gravimetric Analysis -- 2.3 Chemical Analysis -- 3 Source Apportionment Using Positive Matrix Factorization -- 3.1 Data Preparation and Uncertainty Matrix -- 3.2 Positive Matrix Factorization -- 4 Results and Discussion -- 4.1 PM10 Mass Concentrations -- 4.2 Identification and Temporal Variation of the Calculated Factors -- 4.3 Spatial Variation of the Source Profiles -- 4.4 Wind-directional and Trajectory Analysis of the Source Profiles -- 4.5 Source Profiles on Days Exceeding the Daily Limit Value -- 4.6 Estimated Uncertainty of the PMF Analysis -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- PM2.5 Source Apportionment in China -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Time Trends -- 2.1 Visibility Trends -- 2.2 Emission Trends -- 2.3 Meteorology Trends -- 3 Sources of PM2.5 in China -- 3.1 Methods for Source Apportionment -- 3.2 Source Apportionment Results in China -- 3.3 PM2.5 Source Apportionment in Beijing, China -- 4 Future Research -- 4.1 Health Effects -- 4.2 Online Source Apportionment -- 4.3 Integration of Different Source Apportionment Methods -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Case Studies of Source Apportionment from the Indian Sub-continent -- 1 Introduction. , 2 Source Signatures from Indian Sub-continent -- 3 Case Studies from the Indian Sub-continent -- 3.1 India -- 3.2 Pakistan -- 3.3 Bangladesh -- 3.4 Nepal -- 3.5 Sri Lanka -- 3.6 Bhutan -- 3.7 The Maldives -- 4 Concluding Remarks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Health Effects of Airborne Particles in Relation to Composition, Size and Source -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Current Evidence on Differential Toxicity -- 2.1 Black Carbon and Organic Carbon -- 2.2 Metals -- 2.3 Inorganic Secondary Aerosols -- 2.4 Size -- 2.5 Source -- 3 Overall Conclusions on Differential Toxicity -- 4 Global Variation in the Composition and Toxicity of Particulate Matter -- 4.1 North America -- 4.2 Europe -- 4.3 Western Pacific and Southeast Asia -- 5 Discussion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Subject Index.