Anmerkung: Understanding Our Environrment -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1 Introduction -- 1 The Environmental Sciences -- 2 The Chemicals of Interest -- 3 Units of Concentration -- 4 The Environment as a Whole -- 5 Bibliography -- Chapter 2 The Atmosphere -- 1 The Global Atmosphere -- 1.1 The Structure of the Atmosphere -- 1.1.1 Troposphere and Stratosphere -- 1.1.2 Atmospheric Circulation -- 1.1.3 The Boundary Layer -- 1.2 Greenhouse Gases and the Global Climate -- 1.2.1 The Global Energy Balance -- 1.2.2 The Carbon Dioxide Cycle -- 1.2.3 Global Warming -- 1.2.4 Climate Change -- 1.2.5 International Response -- 1.3 Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone -- 1.3.1 The Ozone Layer -- 1.3.2 Ozone Depletion -- 1.3.3 The Antarctic Ozone 'Hole' -- 1.3.4 Effects of International Control Measures -- 2 Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion of Pollutants -- 2.1 Wind Speed and Direction -- 2.2 Atmospheric Stability -- 2.2.1 The Lapse Rate -- 2.2.2 Temperature Inversions -- 2.3 Dispersion from Chimneys -- 2.3.1 Ground-level Concentrations -- 2.3.2 Plume Rise -- 2.3.3 Time Dependence of Average Concentrations -- 2.4 Mathematical Modelling of Dispersion -- 3 Emissions to Atmosphere and Air Quality -- 3.1 Natural Emissions -- 3.1.1 Introduction -- 3.1.2 Sulfur Species -- 3.1.3 Nitrogen Species -- 3.1.4 Hydrocarbons -- 3.2 Emissions of Primary Pollutants -- 3.2.1 Carbon Monoxide and Hydrocarbons -- 3.2.2 Nitrogen Oxides -- 3.2.3 Sulfur Dioxide -- 3.2.4 Particulate Matter -- 3.2.5 Emissions Limits -- 3.2.6 Emissions Inventories -- 3.3 Air Quality -- 3.3.1 Air Quality Standards -- 3.3.2 Air Quality Monitoring -- 3.3.3 Air Quality Trends -- 3.3.4 Vehicular Emissions-CO and Hydrocarbons -- 3.3.5 Nitrogen Oxides -- 3.3.6 Sulfur Oxides -- 3.3.7 Vehicular Particulates -- 3.3.8 Heavy Metals -- 3.3.9 Toxic Organic Micropollutants (TOMPS). , 4 Gas Phase Reactions and Photochemical Ozone -- 4.1 Gas Phase Chemistry in the Troposphere -- 4.1.1 Atmospheric Photochemistry and Oxidation -- 4.1.2 Ozone -- 4.2 Trends in Ozone Levels -- 5 Particles and Acid Deposition -- 5.1 Particle Formation and Properties -- 5.1.1 Particle Formation -- 5.1.2 Particle Composition -- 5.1.3 Deliquescent Behaviour -- 5.1.4 Optical Properties -- 5.2 Droplets and Aqueous Phase Chemistry -- 5.3 Deposition Mechanisms -- 5.3.1 Dry Deposition of Gases -- 5.3.2 Wet Deposition -- 5.3.3 Deposition of Particles -- 5.4 Acid Rain -- 5.4.1 Rainwater Composition -- 5.4.2 The Effects -- 5.4.3 Patterns of Deposition and Critical Loads Assessment -- Questions -- Chapter 3 Freshwaters -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Fundamentals of Aquatic Chemistry -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Concentration and Activity -- 2.1.2 Ionic Strength -- 2.1.3 Equilibria and Equilibrium Constants -- 2.2 Dissolution/Precipitation Reactions -- 2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Weathering Processes -- 2.2.2 Solubility -- 2.2.3 Influence of Organic Matter -- 2.3 Complexation Reactions in Freshwaters -- 2.3.1 Outer and Inner Sphere Complexes -- 2.3.2 Hydrolysis -- 2.3.3 Inorganic Complexes -- 2.3.4 Surface Complex Formation -- 2.3.5 Organic Complexes -- 2.4 Species Distribution in Freshwaters -- 2.4.1 pH as a Master Variable -- 2.4.2 Pε as a Master Variable -- 2.4.3 Pε - pH Relationships -- 2.5 Modelling Aquatic Systems -- 3 Case Studies -- 3.1 Acidification -- 3.1.1 Diatom Records -- 3.1.2 Aluminium -- 3.1.3 Acid Mine Drainage and Ochreous Deposits -- 3.1.4 Acid Mine Drainage and the Release of Heavy Metals -- 3.2 Metals in Water -- 3.2.1 Arsenic in Groundwater -- 3.2.2 Lead in Drinking Water -- 3.2.3 Cadmium in Irrigation Water -- 3.2.4 Selenium in Irrigation Water -- 3.2.5 Aquatic Contamination by Gold Ore Extractants. , 3.3 Historical Pollution Records and Perturbatory Processes in Lakes -- 3.3.1 Records-Lead in Lake Sediments -- 3.3.2 Perturbatory Processes in Lake Sediments -- 3.3.3 Onondaga Lake -- 3.4 Nutrients in Water and Sediments -- 3.4.1 Phosphorus and Eutrophication -- 3.4.2 Nitrate in Groundwater -- 3.5 Organic Matter and Organic Chemicals in Water -- 3.5.1 BOD and COD -- 3.5.2 Synthetic Organic Chemicals -- 4 Treatment -- 4.1 Purification of Water Supplies -- 4.2 Waste Treatment -- Questions -- Further Reading -- Chapter 4 The Oceanic Environment -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 The Ocean as a Biogeochemical Environment -- 1.2 Properties of Water and Seawater -- 1.3 Salinity Concepts -- 1.4 Oceanic Circulation -- 2 Seawater Composition and Chemistry -- 2.1 Major Constituents -- 2.2 Dissolved Gases -- 2.2.1 Gas Solubility and Air-Sea Exchange Processes -- 2.2.2 Oxygen -- 2.2.3 Carbon Dioxide and Alkalinity -- 2.2.4 Dimethyl Sulfide and Climatic Implications -- 2.3 Nutrients -- 2.4 Trace Elements -- 2.5 Physico-chemical Speciation -- 3 Suspended Particles and Marine Sediments -- 3.1 Description of Sediments and Sedimentary Components -- 3.2 Surface Chemistry of Particles -- 3.2.1 Surface Charge -- 3.2.2 Adsorption Processes -- 3.2.3 Ion Exchange Reactions -- 3.2.4 Role of Surface Chemistry in Biogeochemical Cycling -- 3.3 Diagenesis -- 4 Physical and Chemical Processes in Estuaries -- 5 Marine Contamination and Pollution -- 5.1 Oil Slicks -- 5.2 Plastic Debris -- 5.3 Tributyltin -- Questions -- Chapter 5 Land Contamination and Reclamation -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Soil: Its Formation, Constituents, and Properties -- 2.1 Soil Formation -- 2.2 Soil Constituents -- 2.2.1 The Mineral Fraction -- 2.2.2 Soil Organic Matter -- 2.3 Soil Properties -- 2.3.1 Soil Permeability -- 2.3.2 Soil Chemical Properties -- 2.3.3 Adsorption and Decomposition of Organic Containments. , 3 Sources of Land Contaminants -- 4 Characteristics of Some Major Groups of Land Contaminants -- 4.1 Heavy Metals -- 4.2 Organic Contaminants -- 4.3 Sewage Sludge -- 5 Possible Hazards from Contaminated Land -- 6 Methods of Site Investigation -- 7 Interpretation of Site Investigation Data -- 8 Reclamation of Contaminated Land -- 8.1 Ex Situ Methods -- 8.1.1 'Dig and Dump' -- 8.1.2 Soil Cleaning -- 8.2 In Situ Methods -- 8.2.1 Physico-chemical Methods -- 8.2.2 Biological Methods -- 8..3 Specific Techniques for Gasworks Sites -- 9 Case Studies -- 9.1 Gasworks Sites -- 9.2 Soil Contamination by Landfilling and Waste Disposal -- 9.3 Heavy Metal Contamination from Metalliferous Mining and Smelting -- 9.4 Heavy Metal Contamination of Domestic Garden Soils in Urban Areas -- 9.5 Land Contamination by Solvents, PCBs, and Dioxins Following a Fire at an Industrial Plant -- 10 Conclusions -- Questions -- Chapter 6 Environmental Cycling of Pollutants -- 1 Introduction: Biogeochemical Cycling -- 1.1 Environmental Reservoirs -- 1.2 Lifetimes -- 1.2.1 Influence of Lifetime on Environmental Behaviour -- 2 Rates of Transfer Between Environmental Compartments -- 2.1 Air-Land Exchange -- 2.2 Air-Sea Exchange -- 3 Transfers in Aquatic Systems -- 4 Biogeochemical Cycles -- 4.1 Case Study 1: The Biogeochemical Cycle of Nitrogen -- 4.2 Case Study 2: Aspects of the Biogeochemical Cycle of Lead -- 5 Environmental Partitioning of Long-lived Species -- Questions -- Chapter 7 Environmental Monitoring Strategies -- 1 Objectives of Monitoring -- 2 Types of Monitoring -- 2.1 Source Monitoring -- 2.1.1 General Objectives -- 2.1.2 Stationary Source Sampling for Gaseous Emissions -- 2.1.3 Mobile Source Sampling for Gaseous Effluents -- 2.1.4 Source Monitoring for Liquid Effluents -- 2.1.5 Source Monitoring for Solid Effluents -- 2.2 Ambient Environment Monitoring. , 2.2.1 General Objectives -- 2.2.2 Ambient Air Monitoring -- 2.2.3 Environmental Water Monitoring -- 2.2.4 Sediment, Soil, and Biological Monitoring -- 3 Sampling Methods -- 3.1 Air Sampling Methods -- 3.1.1 Intake Design -- 3.1.2 Sample Collection -- 3.1.3 Flow Measurement and Air Moving Devices -- 3.2 Water Sampling Methods -- 3.3 Soil and Sediment Sampling Methods -- 4 Modelling of Environmental Dispersion -- 4.1 Atmospheric Dispersal -- 4.2 Aquatic Mixing -- 4.3 Variability in Soil and Sediment Pollutant Levels -- 5 Duration and Extent of Survey -- 5.1 Duration of Survey and Frequency of Sampling -- 5.2 Methods of Reducing Sampling Frequency -- 5.3 Number of Sampling Sites -- 6 Prerequisites for Monitoring -- 6.1 Monitoring Protocol -- 6.2 Meteorological Data -- 6.3 Source Inventory -- 6.4 Suitability of Analytical Techniques -- 6.5 Environmental Quality Standards -- 7 Remote Sensing of Pollutant -- 8 Presentation of Data -- Questions -- Chapter 8 Ecological and Health Effects of Chemical Pollution -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Toxicity: Exposure-Response Relationships -- 3 Exposure -- 4 Absorption -- 5 Internal Pathways -- 6 Ecological Risk Assessment -- 7 Individuals, Populations, and Communities and the Role of Biomarkers -- 8 Health Effects of the Major Air Pollutants -- 9 Effect of Air Pollution on Plants -- 10 Ecological Effects of Acid Deposition -- 11 Forest Decline -- 12 Effects of Pollutants on Reproduction and Development: Evidence of Endocrine Disruption -- 12.1 Eggshell Thinning -- 12.2 GLEMEDS -- 12.3 Marine Mammals -- 12.4 Imposex in Gastropods -- 12.5 Endocrine Disruptors -- 13 Hydrocarbons in the Marine Environment -- 14 Health Effects of Metal Pollution -- 14.1 Mercury -- 14.2 Lead -- 15 Conclusion -- Questions -- Chapter 9 Managing Environmental Quality -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Objectives, Standards, and Limits. , 2.1 Environmental Objectives.