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  • 1
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    Antioxidant responses and lipid peroxidation in gills and erythrocytes of fish (Rhabdosarga sarba) upon exposure to Chattonella marina and hydrogen peroxide : implications on the cause of fish kills (2006)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © Elsevier B.V., 2006. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier B.V. for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 336 (2006): 230-241, doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2006.05.013.
    Description: Chattonella marina, a red tide or harmful algal bloom species, has caused mass fish kills and serious economic loss worldwide, and yet its toxic actions remain highly controversial. Previous studies have shown that this species is able to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), and therefore postulated that ROS are the causative agents of fish kills. The present study investigates antioxidant responses and lipid peroxidation in gills and erythrocytes of fish (Rhabdosarga sarba) upon exposure to C. marina, compared with responses exposed to equivalent and higher levels of ROS exposure. Even though C. marina can produce a high level of ROS, gills and erythrocytes of sea bream exposed to C. marina for 1 to 6 h showed neither significant induction of antioxidant enzymes nor lipid peroxidation. Antioxidant responses and oxidative damage did not occur as fish mortality began to occur, yet could be induced upon exposure to artificially supplied ROS levels an order of magnitude higher. The result of this study implies that ROS produced by C. marina is not the principal cause of fish kills.
    Description: This study was supported by a CERG grant (CityU 1109/03M / No. 9040864) of the University Grants Committee, Hong Kong SAR government. Support for Don Anderson was also provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation through grant no. OCE-0136861.
    Keywords: Harmful algal blooms ; Reactive oxygen species ; Antioxidant responses ; Lipid peroxidation
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Preprint
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  • 2
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    Estimated annual economic impacts from harmful algal blooms (HABs) in the United States (2005)
    Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Blooms of toxic or harmful microalgae, commonly called "red tides," represent a significant and expanding threat to human health and fisheries resources throughout the United States and the world. Ecological, aesthetic, and public health impacts include: mass mortalities of wild and farmed fish and shellfish, human intoxication and death from the consumption of contaminated shellfish or fish, alterations of marine food webs through adverse effects on larvae and other life history stages of commercial fish species, the noxious smell and appearance of algae accumulated in nearshore waters or deposited on beaches, and mass mortalities of marine mammals, seabirds, and other animals. In this report, we provide an estimate of the economic impacts of HABs in the United States from events where such impacts were measurable with a fair degree of confidence during the interval 1987-92. The total economic impact averaged $49 million per year, with public health impacts representing the largest component (45 percent). Commercial fisheries impacts were the next largest (37 percent of the total), while recreation/tourism accounted for 13 percent, and monitoring/management impacts 4 percent. These estimates are highly conservative, as many economic costs or impacts from HABs could not be estimated.
    Description: Funding was provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration under Grants No. NA46RG0470 and NA90AA-D-SG480, the National Science Foundation under Grant No. OCE-9321244, and the Johnson Endowment of the Marine Policy Center.
    Keywords: Harmful algal blooms ; HABs ; Red tides ; Economic impacts ; Brown tides ; United States
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Technical Report
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  • 3
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    Molecular characterization and morphology of Cochlodinium strangulatum, the type species of Cochlodinium, and Margalefidinium gen. nov. for C. polykrikoides and allied species (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae) (2017)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: © The Author(s), 2017. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here under a nonexclusive, irrevocable, paid-up, worldwide license granted to WHOI. It is made available for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Harmful Algae 63 (2017): 32-44, doi:10.1016/j.hal.2017.01.008.
    Description: Photosynthetic species of the dinoflagellate genus Cochlodinium such as C. polykrikoides, one of the most harmful bloom-forming dinoflagellates, have been extensively investigated. Little is known about the heterotrophic forms of Cochlodinium, such as its type species, Cochlodinium strangulatum. This is an uncommon, large (~200 μm long), solitary, and phagotrophic species, with numerous refractile bodies, a central nucleus enclosed in a distinct perinuclear capsule, and a cell surface with fine longitudinal striae and a circular apical groove. The morphology of C. polykrikoides and allied species is different from the generic type. It is a bloom-forming species with single, two or four-celled chains, small cell size (25–40 μm long) with elongated chloroplasts arranged longitudinally and in parallel, anterior nucleus, eye-spot in the anterior dorsal side, and a cell surface smooth with U-shaped apical groove. Phylogenetic analysis based on LSU rDNA sequences revealed that C. strangulatum and C. polykrikoides/C. fulvescens formed two distally related, independent lineages. Based on morphological and phylogenetic analyses, the diagnosis of Cochlodinium is emended and C. miniatum is proposed as synonym of C. strangulatum. The new genus Margalefidinium gen. nov., and new combinations for C. catenatum, C. citron, C. flavum, C. fulvescens and C. polykrikoides are proposed.
    Description: F.G. was supported by the Brazilian Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico [grant number BJT 370646/2013–14]. Support for M.L.R. and D.M.A. was provided through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, National Science Foundation [grant number OCE–1314642] and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [grant number 1–P01–ES021923–01].
    Keywords: HABs ; Harmful algal blooms ; Molecular phylogenetics ; Red tide ; Toxic Dinoflagellata ; Unarmoured dinoflagellate
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 4
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    Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication : examining linkages from selected coastal regions of the United States (2009)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © Elsevier B.V., 2008. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier B.V. for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Harmful Algae 8 (2008): 39-53, doi:10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.017.
    Description: Coastal waters of the United States (U.S.) are subject to many of the major harmful algal bloom (HAB) poisoning syndromes and impacts. These include paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) and various other HAB phenomena such as fish kills, loss of submerged vegetation, shellfish mortalities, and widespread marine mammal mortalities. Here, the occurrences of selected HABs in a selected set of regions are described in terms of their relationship to eutrophication, illustrating a range of responses. Evidence suggestive of changes in the frequency, extent or magnitude of HABs in these areas is explored in the context of the nutrient sources underlying those blooms, both natural and anthropogenic. In some regions of the U.S., the linkages between HABs and eutrophication are clear and well documented, whereas in others, information is limited, thereby highlighting important areas for further research.
    Description: Support was provided through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health (to DMA), National Science Foundation (NSF) grants OCE-9808173 and OCE-0430724 (to DMA), OCE-0234587 (to WPC), OCE04-32479 (to MLP), OCE-0138544 (to RMK), OCE-9981617 (to PMG); National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) grants P50ES012742-01 (to DMA) and P50ES012740 (to MLP); NOAA Grants NA96OP0099 (to DMA), NA16OP1450 (to VLT), NA96P00084 (to GAV and CAH), NA160C2936 and NA108H-C (to RMK), NA860P0493 and NA04NOS4780241 (to PMG), NA04NOS4780239-02 (to RMK), NA06NOS4780245 (to DWT). Support was also provided from the West Coast Center for Oceans and Human Health (to VLT and WPC), USEPA Grant CR826792-01-0 (to GAV and CAH), and the State of Florida Grant S7701617826 (to GAV and CAH).
    Keywords: Harmful algal blooms ; HABs ; Red tides ; Eutrophication ; Nutrients ; Nitrogen ; Phosphorus
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 5
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    The globally distributed genus Alexandrium : multifaceted roles in marine ecosystems and impacts on human health (2014)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2011. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Harmful Algae 14 (2012): 10-35, doi:10.1016/j.hal.2011.10.012.
    Description: The dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium is one of the major harmful algal bloom (HAB) genera with respect to the diversity, magnitude and consequences of blooms. The ability of Alexandrium to colonize multiple habitats and to persist over large regions through time is testimony to the adaptability and resilience of this group of species. Three different families of toxins, as well as an as yet incompletely characterized suite of allelochemicals are produced among Alexandrium species. Nutritional strategies are equally diverse, including the ability to utilize a range of inorganic and organic nutrient sources, and feeding by ingestion of other organisms. Many Alexandrium species have complex life histories that include sexuality and often, but not always, cyst formation, which is characteristic of a meroplanktonic life strategy and offers considerable ecological advantages. Due to the public health and ecosystem impacts of Alexandrium blooms, the genus has been extensively studied, and there exists a broad knowledge base that ranges from taxonomy and phylogeny through genomics and toxin biosynthesis to bloom dynamics and modeling. Here we present a review of the genus Alexandrium, focusing on the major toxic and otherwise harmful species.
    Description: Support to DMA was provided by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (1-P50-ES012742) and the National Science Foundation through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health (OCE-0430724), and by NOAA Grants NA09NOS4780193, NA06OAR4170021 and NA06NOS4780245. Research funding to ADC and previously to TJA was furnished under the PACES Programme (Coast WP2) from the Helmholtz Society initiative Earth and Environment. Support to TJA was obtained by the research funding program LOEWE (Landes-Offensive zur Entwicklung Wissenschaftlich-ökonomischer Exzellenz) of Hesse’s Ministry of Higher Education, Research, and the Arts. Support to EM and YC was provided by grants from the French National Programme “Ecosphère Continentale et Côtière-EC2CO and from the “Fondation pour la Recherche sur la Biodiversité-INVALEX project (AAP-IN-2009- 036).
    Keywords: Alexandrium ; Harmful algal blooms ; HAB ; Biotoxins ; Public health ; Global dispersion
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 6
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    Categorizing the severity of paralytic shellfish poisoning outbreaks in the Gulf of Maine for forecasting and management (2014)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2013. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 103 (2014): 277-287, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.03.027.
    Description: Development of forecasting systems for harmful algal blooms (HABs) has been a long-standing research and management goal. Significant progress has been made in the Gulf of Maine, where seasonal bloom forecasts are now being issued annually using Alexandrium fundyense cyst abundance maps and a population dynamics model developed for that organism. Thus far these forecasts have used terms such as “significant”, “moderately large” or “moderate” to convey the extent of forecasted paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) outbreaks. In this study, historical shellfish harvesting closure data along the coast of the Gulf of Maine were used to derive a series of bloom severity levels that are analogous to those used to define major storms like hurricanes or tornados. Thirty-four years of PSP-related shellfish closure data for Maine, Massachusetts and New Hampshire were collected and mapped to depict the extent of coastline closure in each year. Due to fractal considerations, different methods were explored for measuring length of coastline closed. Ultimately, a simple procedure was developed using arbitrary straight-line segments to represent specific sections of the coastline. This method was consistently applied to each year’s PSP toxicity closure map to calculate the total length of coastline closed. Maps were then clustered together statistically to yield distinct groups of years with similar characteristics. A series of categories or levels was defined (“Level 1: Limited”, “Level 2: Moderate”, and “Level 3: Extensive”) each with an associated range of expected coastline closed, which can now be used instead of vague descriptors in future forecasts. This will provide scientifically consistent and simply defined information to the public as well as resource managers who make decisions on the basis of the forecasts.
    Description: Research support provided through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, National Science Foundation (NSF) Grants OCE-0430724, and OCE-0911031; and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) Grant 1-P50-ES012742-01, the ECOHAB Grant program through NOAA Grant NA06NOS4780245, and the PCM HAB Grant program through NOAA Grant NA11NOS4780023.
    Keywords: Alexandrium fundyense ; Harmful algal blooms ; HABs ; PSP ; Forecasts
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 7
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    The Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms: Multidisciplinary Approaches to Research and Management. Anton Bruum Memorial Lecture, presented 27 June 2005, UNESCO, Paris (2022)
    UNESCO | Paris, France
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-09-16
    Description: Virtually every coastal country in the world is affected by harmful algal blooms (HABs, commonly called “red tides”). This diverse array of phenomena includes blooms of toxic, microscopic algae that lead to illness and death in humans, fish, seabirds, marine mammals, and other oceanic life. There are also non-toxic HABs that cause damage to ecosystems, fisheries resources, and recreational facilities, often due to the sheer biomass of the accumulated algae. The term “HAB” also applies to non-toxic macroalgae (seaweeds), which can cause major ecological impacts such as the displacement of indigenous species, habitat alteration and oxygen depletion in bottom waters. The frequency, spatial extent, and economic impact of HABs have all expanded in recent decades, in parallel with, and sometimes a result of, the world’s increasing exploitation on the coastal zone for shelter, food, recreation, and commerce. HABs are complex oceanographic phenomena that require multidisciplinary study ranging from molecular and cell biology to large-scale field surveys, numerical modelling, and remote sensing from space. Multi-lateral international programmes and bilateral initiatives are bringing scientists together from different countries and disciplines in a concerted attack on this complex and multi-faceted issue. Our understanding of these phenomena is increasing dramatically, and with this understanding come technologies and management tools that can reduce HAB incidence and impact. More effective HAB management is sure to be one major outcome of the growing investment in the Global Ocean Observing System. HABs will always be with us, and in the next few decades at least, are likely to continue to expand in geographic extent and frequency. Nevertheless, scientifically based management should permit full exploitation of fisheries, recreational, and commercial resources, despite the recurrent and diverse threat that HABs pose. This series of lectures is dedicated to the memory of the noted Danish oceanographer and first chairman of the Commission, Dr Anton Frederick Bruun. The "Anton Bruun Memorial Lectures" were established in accordance with Resolution 19 of the Sixth Session of the IOC Assembly, in which the Commission proposed that important inter-session developments be summarized by speakers in the fields of solid earth studies, physical and chemical oceanography and meteorology, and marine biology.
    Description: Published
    Description: Refereed
    Keywords: Harmful algal blooms ; HAB ; Anton Bruun Memorial Lecture ; ASFA_2015::O::Oceanographers ; ASFA_2015::M::Marine biology ; ASFA_2015::A::Algal blooms
    Repository Name: AquaDocs
    Type: Report
    Format: 28pp.
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  • 8
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    Investigating the importance of sediment resuspension in Alexandrium fundyense cyst population dynamics in the Gulf of Maine (2014)
    Elsevier
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: © The Author(s), 2013. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 103 (2014): 79–95, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.10.011.
    Description: Cysts of Alexandrium fundyense, a dinoflagellate that causes toxic algal blooms in the Gulf of Maine, spend the winter as dormant cells in the upper layer of bottom sediment or the bottom nepheloid layer and germinate in spring to initiate new blooms. Erosion measurements were made on sediment cores collected at seven stations in the Gulf of Maine in the autumn of 2011 to explore if resuspension (by waves and currents) could change the distribution of over-wintering cysts from patterns observed in the previous autumn; or if resuspension could contribute cysts to the water column during spring when cysts are viable. The mass of sediment eroded from the core surface at 0.4 Pa ranged from 0.05 kg m−2 near Grand Manan Island, to 0.35 kg m−2 in northern Wilkinson Basin. The depth of sediment eroded ranged from about 0.05 mm at a station with sandy sediment at 70 m water depth on the western Maine shelf, to about 1.2 mm in clayey–silt sediment at 250 m water depth in northern Wilkinson Basin. The sediment erodibility measurements were used in a sediment-transport model forced with modeled waves and currents for the period October 1, 2010 to May 31, 2011 to predict resuspension and bed erosion. The simulated spatial distribution and variation of bottom shear stress was controlled by the strength of the semi-diurnal tidal currents, which decrease from east to west along the Maine coast, and oscillatory wave-induced currents, which are strongest in shallow water. Simulations showed occasional sediment resuspension along the central and western Maine coast associated with storms, steady resuspension on the eastern Maine shelf and in the Bay of Fundy associated with tidal currents, no resuspension in northern Wilkinson Basin, and very small resuspension in western Jordan Basin. The sediment response in the model depended primarily on the profile of sediment erodibility, strength and time history of bottom stress, consolidation time scale, and the current in the water column. Based on analysis of wave data from offshore buoys from 1996 to 2012, the number of wave events inducing a bottom shear stress large enough to resuspend sediment at 80 m ranged from 0 to 2 in spring (April and May) and 0 to 10 in winter (October through March). Wave-induced resuspension is unlikely in water greater than about 100 m deep. The observations and model results suggest that a millimeter or so of sediment and associated cysts may be mobilized in both winter and spring, and that the frequency of resuspension will vary interannually. Depending on cyst concentration in the sediment and the vertical distribution in the water column, these events could result in a concentration in the water column of at least 104 cysts m−3. In some years, resuspension events could episodically introduce cysts into the water column in spring, where germination is likely to be facilitated at the time of bloom formation. An assessment of the quantitative effects of cyst resuspension on bloom dynamics in any particular year requires more detailed investigation.
    Description: Research support to Donald M. Anderson and Bruce A. Keafer provided through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health; National Science Foundation Grants OCE-0430724 and OCE-0911031; and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Grant 1-P50-ES012742-01; the ECOHAB Grant program through NOAA Grants NA06NOS4780245 and A09NOS4780193; the MERHAB Grant program through NOAA Grant NA11NOS4780025; and the PCMHAB Grant program through NOAA Grant NA11NOS4780023. Research support to all other authors was provided by U.S. Geological Survey.
    Keywords: Sediment transport ; Bottom stress ; Sediment resuspension ; Harmful algal blooms ; Gulf of Maine ; Alexandrium fundyense ; HAB
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Article
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  • 9
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    Marine molluscs in nearshore habitats of the United Arab Emirates : decadal changes and species of public health significance (2018)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2017. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here under a nonexclusive, irrevocable, paid-up, worldwide license granted to WHOI. It is made available for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Coastal Research 34 (2018): 1157-1175, doi:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-17-00119.1.
    Description: This paper describes the results of three qualitative surveys of marine molluscs conducted in December 2010 and May 2011 and 2012 in nearshore benthic habitats along the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman coasts of the United Arab Emirates. Findings are compared to historical studies, focusing on extensive surveys from the 1960s and 1970s. Molluscan species of public health significance are identified based on their potential as vectors of algal toxins in light of the recent occurrence of harmful algal blooms (HABs) in the region. Habitats sampled included intertidal sand or gravel beaches, rocks and jetties, sheltered soft-sediment flats and mangroves, and shallow subtidal coral reefs. The present study showed differences in taxonomic composition and decreased species richness of gastropods compared to a previous mollusc survey conducted in the early 1970s, reflecting the probable impacts of extensive, ongoing coastal development activities, although other environmental stressors may play a contributing role. The major habitat change found in the current survey was replacement of natural “rocky” substrates with manmade jetties and breakwaters. Of the 27 live gastropod species collected, 7 predatory or scavenging species were identified as potential biotoxin vectors: Thais savignyi, T. tissoti, T. lacera, Murex scolopax, Nassarius persicus, Hexaplex kuesterianus and Rapana sp. Of the 22 live bivalve species collected, the following 11 suspension-feeders were deemed to be potential vectors of HAB toxins based on their body size and feeding mode: three venerid clams (Circenita callipyga, and Tivela ponderosa that are consumed locally, and Amiantis umbonella), the widespread encrusting rock oyster, Saccostrea cuccullata, also consumed locally, two pearl oyster species, Pinctada spp., the prickly pen shell Pinna muricata, the scallop Chlamys livida, the cockle Acrosterigma lacunosa, and the facultative suspension-feeding tellinids Asaphis violascens and Hiatula rosea.
    Description: This study was funded by the Ministry of Climate Change and Environment (formerly the Ministry of Environment and Water), UAE, as part of a consultancy led by Don Anderson, Anderson Consulting Associates, Marion, Massachusetts, USA.
    Keywords: Distribution ; Gastropods ; Bivalves ; Harmful algal blooms
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 10
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    Understanding interannual, decadal level variability in paralytic shellfish poisoning toxicity in the Gulf of Maine : the HAB Index (2014)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2013. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 103 (2014): 264-276, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.09.018.
    Description: A major goal in harmful algal bloom (HAB) research has been to identify mechanisms underlying interannual variability in bloom magnitude and impact. Here the focus is on variability in Alexandrium fundyense blooms and paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxicity in Maine, USA, over 34 years (1978 – 2011). The Maine coastline was divided into two regions - eastern and western Maine, and within those two regions, three measures of PSP toxicity (the percent of stations showing detectable toxicity over the year, the cumulative amount of toxicity per station measured in all shellfish (mussel) samples during that year, and the duration of measurable toxicity) were examined for each year in the time series. These metrics were combined into a simple HAB Index that provides a single measure of annual toxin severity across each region. The three toxin metrics, as well as the HAB Index that integrates them, reveal significant variability in overall toxicity between individual years as well as long-term, decadal patterns or regimes. Based on different conceptual models of the system, we considered three trend formulations to characterize the long-term patterns in the Index – a three-phase (mean-shift) model, a linear two-phase model, and a pulse-decline model. The first represents a “regime shift” or multiple equilibria formulation as might occur with alternating periods of sustained high and low cyst abundance or favorable and unfavorable growth conditions, the second depicts a scenario of more gradual transitions in cyst abundance or growth conditions of vegetative cells, and the third characterizes a ”sawtooth” pattern in which upward shifts in toxicity are associated with major cyst recruitment events, followed by a gradual but continuous decline until the next pulse. The fitted models were compared using both residual sum of squares and Akaike’s Information Criterion. There were some differences between model fits, but none consistently gave a better fit than the others. This statistical underpinning can guide efforts to identify physical and/or biological mechanisms underlying the patterns revealed by the HAB Index. Although A. fundyense cyst survey data (limited to 9 years) do not span the entire interval of the shellfish toxicity records, this analysis leads us to hypothesize that major changes in the abundance of A. fundyense cysts may be a primary factor contributing to the decadal trends in shellfish toxicity in this region. The HAB Index approach taken here is simple but represents a novel and potentially useful tool for resource managers in many areas of the world subject to toxic HABs.
    Description: Research support provided through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, National Science Foundation (NSF) Grants OCE- 1128041 and OCE-1314642; and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) Grant 1-P50-ES021923-01, the ECOHAB Grant program through NOAA Grants NA06NOS4780245 and NA09NOS4780193, the MERHAB Grant program through NOAA Grant NA11NOS4780025, the PCMHAB Grant program through NOAA Grant NA11NOS4780023, and funding through the states of ME, NH, and MA. Funding for J.L. Martin was provided by Fisheries and Oceans Canada.
    Keywords: Alexandrium fundyense ; Harmful algal blooms ; HABs ; PSP ; HAB Index
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Preprint
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