Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Abbreviations -- 1 An Introduction to Microbial Biofilm -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.1.1 Biofilm Growth and Development -- 1.1.2 Beneficial and Naturally Occurring Biofilms -- 1.1.3 The Harmful Effects of Biofilm Formation -- 1.1.4 Naturally Occurring Biofilms -- 1.1.5 Biofilms in Health and Medicine -- 1.1.6 Control of Biofilms -- 1.1.7 Biofilm and Antibiotic Resistance -- 1.1.8 The Future of Studying Biofilms -- References -- 2 Biofilms: The Good and the Bad -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Mechanism of Bacterial Biofilm Formation -- 2.2.1 The Conditioning Layer -- 2.2.2 Reversible Adhesion -- 2.2.3 Irreversible Adhesion -- 2.2.4 Micro-colony Formation and Three-Dimensional Growth -- 2.2.5 Biofilm Formation -- 2.2.6 Maturation and Dispersal -- 2.3 Applications of Biofilms -- 2.3.1 Biofilm Uses -- 2.3.2 Bioremediation -- 2.4 Oil Spills and Contaminated Groundwater -- 2.5 Microbial Leaching -- 2.6 Biofilm Reactors -- 2.7 Biofilms in Biosensors -- 2.8 Biofilm Integrated Nanofiber Display -- 2.9 The Harmful Effects of Biofilms -- 2.9.1 The Food and Dairy Industry -- 2.9.2 Aquaculture and the Sea Food Industry -- 2.9.3 The Brewing Industry -- 2.9.4 Bio-corrosion -- 2.9.5 The Medical Industry -- References -- 3 Biofilms in Human Health -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Biofilm Structure -- 3.3 Biofilm Development -- 3.3.1 Growth of Conditioning Film on Surface -- 3.3.2 Movement of Microorganisms Towards Surface -- 3.3.3 Adherence -- 3.3.4 Colonization for Development and Division of Microbe, Formation of Microcolony and Biofilms, Change in Genotype and Phenotype -- 3.3.5 Interaction of Microorganisms inside Biofilm -- 3.4 Antibiotics and Biofilms -- 3.5 Pathogenic Mechanisms -- 3.6 Biofilm and Human Diseases -- 3.6.1 Oral Cavity -- 3.6.2 Upper Airways -- 3.6.3 Lower Airways. , 3.6.4 Gastrointestinal and Urinary Tracts -- 3.6.5 Wounds -- 3.7 Main Characteristics of Biofilm Mediated Diseases -- References -- 4 The Role of Biofilm in Originating, Mediating, and Proliferating Infectious Diseases -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.1.1 Biofilm Origination and Mediation -- 4.2 Indwelling Devices Where Microbes Frequently Cause Biofilms -- 4.3 Biofilm-Mediated Infectious Diseases -- 4.3.1 Barrett's Esophagus and Gastric Cancer -- 4.3.2 Endotracheal Tube Colonization and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia -- 4.3.3 Cystic Fibrosis -- 4.3.4 Chronic Otitis Media -- 4.3.5 Dental Plaque -- 4.3.6 Urinary Tract and Catheter-Associated Infections -- 4.3.7 Skin Infections by Staphylococcus -- 4.3.8 Chronic Ulcers -- 4.3.9 Prosthetic Graft Infection -- 4.3.10 Healthcare-Associated Infections -- 4.4 Other Biofilm-Mediated Infections -- 4.5 Conclusion -- References -- 5 Modern Methods in Microscopy for the Assessment of Biofilms -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Diagnosis of Biofilm Infections -- 5.2.1 Routine Microbiological Examination -- 5.2.2 Different Microscopic Methods -- 5.3 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Molecular Methods for the Assessment of Microbial Biofilms -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Why Molecular Methods? -- 6.3 Different Methods Used to Assess Biofilm: Ergin (2017) -- 6.4 Next-Generation Sequencing Technology -- 6.4.1 Advantages of NGS -- 6.4.2 Utility of NGS in Clinical Microbiology: Deurenberg et al. (2016) -- 6.4.3 Workflow of NGS -- 6.4.4 Clinical Sample/Specimen -- 6.4.5 Nucleic Acids Sequencing -- 6.4.6 Sequence Data Analysis -- 6.4.7 Application of NGS -- 6.5 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) -- 6.5.1 Advantage of PCR -- 6.5.2 Workflow of PCR -- 6.5.3 Procedure and General Protocol -- 6.5.4 1-1.8% Agarose Gel Electrophoresis -- 6.5.5 Application of PCR -- 6.6 DNA-DNA Hybridization -- 6.6.1 Principle of DNA-DNA Hybridization. , 6.6.2 Major Disadvantages -- 6.6.3 DDH Protocol and Procedure -- 6.6.4 Application of DNA-DNA Hybridization -- 6.7 Microarray Technology -- 6.7.1 Application of Microarray -- References -- 7 Biofilm-Mediated Dental Diseases -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Oral Flora -- 7.3 Development -- 7.4 Oral Microbiota: Beneficial Functions -- 7.5 Oral Niches -- 7.5.1 Tongue and Buccal Mucosa -- 7.5.2 Tooth Surface -- 7.5.3 Gingival Crevice and Its Epithelium -- 7.5.4 Dental Appliances and Prosthetics -- 7.6 Factors Modulating Microbial Growth -- 7.6.1 Anatomic Factors -- 7.6.2 Saliva -- 7.6.3 Gingival Crevicular Fluid -- 7.6.4 Microbial Factors -- 7.6.5 Environmental Factors -- 7.6.6 Miscellaneous -- 7.7 Nutrition -- 7.7.1 Host Resources -- 7.7.2 Microbial Resources -- 7.8 Dental Plaque -- 7.9 Dental Plaque and Caries -- 7.9.1 Caries Origin Hypothesis -- 7.10 Dental Plaque, Dental Calculus, and Periodontitis -- 7.10.1 Calculus -- 7.10.2 Classification of Periodontal Disease -- 7.10.3 Etiology of Periodontal Disease -- 7.11 The Systemic Connection of Oral Biofilms -- 7.12 Approaches for Control of Dental Biofilm -- 7.12.1 Conventional Treatment -- 7.12.2 Mechanical Plaque Control -- 7.12.3 Oral Irrigators (Mandal et al. 2017) -- 7.12.4 Chemical Plaque Control -- 7.12.5 Local Delivery of Drugs -- References -- 8 Biofilm-Mediated Diseases of the Eye -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Endophthalmitis -- 8.3 Contact Lens Associated Keratitis -- 8.4 Crystalline Keratopathy -- 8.5 Dry Eye -- 8.6 Ocular Implants and Biofilms -- 8.6.1 Conjunctival Plug -- 8.6.2 Scleral Buckles -- 8.6.3 Lacrimal Intubation Devices -- 8.6.4 Orbital Implants -- 8.6.5 Other Biomaterials Used in Ophthalmology -- 8.7 Prevention and Treatment of Biofilms -- References -- 9 Biofilm-Mediated Diseases of the Ear, Nose, and Throat (ENT) -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Chronic Rhino-sinusitis. , 9.3 Otitis Media with Effusion -- 9.4 Cholesteatoma -- 9.5 Adenotonsillitis -- 9.6 Biofilms in Ear, Nose, and Throat Implants and Prostheses -- 9.7 Treatment -- 9.8 Prevention -- 9.9 Conclusion -- References -- 10 Biofilm-Mediated Diseases of the Heart and Lungs -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Biofilms Related to Endotracheal Tubes and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia -- 10.3 Biofilms in Cystic Fibrosis -- 10.4 Biofilms in Pulmonary Infections -- 10.5 Biofilms in Indwelling Vascular Catheters -- 10.6 Mechanical Heart Valve Biofilms -- 10.7 Biofilms in Infective Endocarditis -- 10.8 Biofilms in Atherosclerosis -- 10.9 Cardiovascular Implantable Electronic Devices -- 10.10 Conclusion -- References -- 11 The Role of Biofilms in Medical Devices and Implants -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Mechanism of Biofilm Formation -- 11.3 Prevention and Control of Biofilms -- 11.3.1 Cell Repellent and Non-adhesive Coatings -- 11.3.2 The Active Release of Antimicrobial Compounds and Biofilm Inhibitors -- 11.3.3 Antimicrobial Coatings with Tethered Biocides -- 11.3.4 Competitive Adherence by Benign Organisms -- 11.4 Biofilms and Healthcare-Associated Infections -- 11.4.1 Central Venous Catheters -- 11.4.2 Urinary Catheters -- 11.4.3 Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia and Endotracheal Tubes -- 11.4.4 Surgical Site Infection -- 11.4.5 Mechanical Heart Valves -- 11.4.6 Contact Lenses -- 11.4.7 Orthopedic Implants -- 11.4.8 Dental Implants -- 11.4.9 Breast Implants -- 11.5 Detection and Diagnosis of Bacterial Biofilms on Medical Devices -- 11.6 Preventive Measures for Biofilm Control and Future Perspectives -- 11.7 Conclusion -- References -- 12 Biofilm-mediated Gastrointestinal Diseases -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Esophagus -- 12.2.1 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease and Barret's Esophagus -- 12.2.2 Carcinoma of the Esophagus -- 12.3 Stomach -- 12.3.1 Helicobacter pylori Infection. , 12.4 Intestines -- 12.4.1 Foodborne Bacterial Disease and Biofilm -- 12.4.2 Clostridium Difficile -- 12.4.3 Inflammatory Bowel Disease -- 12.4.4 Irritable Bowel Syndrome -- 12.4.5 Colorectal Malignancy -- References -- 13 Biofilm-Mediated Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.1 Infections in Urinary Tract -- 13.2 Pathogenesis of Biofilm-Mediated UTIs -- 13.2.1 Role of Biofilms in Recurrent UTIs -- 13.2.2 Role of Biofilm in ABU -- 13.2.3 Role of Biofilms in Catheter-Associated Infections -- 13.3 Microbial Factors Contributing to Biofilm Formation in Urinary Tract -- 13.3.1 Escherichia coli and Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.3.2 Proteus mirabilis and Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.3.3 Klebsiella pneumoniae and Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.3.4 Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.3.5 Miscellaneous Microorganisms and Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.4 Treatment and Prevention of Biofilm-Mediated UTIs -- 13.4.1 Antimicrobial Treatment of Biofilms -- 13.4.2 Newer Strategies -- 13.5 Future Prospects -- 13.5.1 Bladder Model -- 13.5.2 Urinary Tract Model -- 13.5.3 CAUTI Model -- 13.5.4 Meatus Model -- References -- 14 Biofilm-Mediated Skin Infections -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Role of Biofilm in Skin Infection -- 14.3 Biofilm Formation and Cell-to-Cell Communication -- 14.4 Pathogenesis and Types of Skin Infection Caused by Biofilms -- 14.4.1 Rosacea -- 14.4.2 Acne Vulgaris -- 14.4.3 Atopic Dermatitis -- 14.4.4 Cellulitis, Erythema Nosodum, and Erysipelas -- 14.4.5 Onychomycosis -- 14.4.6 Furuncles and Impetigo -- 14.4.7 Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome -- 14.4.8 Miliaria -- 14.4.9 Necrotizing Fasciitis -- 14.4.10 Pseudomonas Infections of the Skin -- 14.4.11 Paronychia -- 14.4.12 Chronic Non-healing Ulcers -- 14.4.13 Other Biofilm-Related Skin Infections -- 14.5 Conclusion -- References. , 15 Approaches Towards Microbial Biofilm Disruption by Natural Bioactive Agents.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- 1 Introduction to Drugs, Drug Targets and Drug Resistance -- 1.1 Drugs -- 1.1.1 Classification of Drugs -- 1.2 Receptors (Drug Targets) -- 1.2.1 Types of Receptors -- 1.3 Drug Resistance -- 1.3.1 Mechanisms of Drug Resistance -- 1.3.2 Multidrug Resistance -- 1.3.3 Drug Resistance in Tumor -- 1.3.4 Economic Impact of Drug Resistance -- References -- 2 Drugs Resistance in Bacterial Diseases -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Prevention and Control -- 2.3 Recent Developments in the Prevention of Antibiotic Resistance -- 2.4 Antibiotic Discovery and Supremacy -- 2.5 Causes of Antibiotic Resistance -- 2.6 Common Antibiotics Used Against Bacteria -- 2.6.1 Aminoglycosides -- 2.6.2 Amphenicols -- 2.6.3 Antifolates -- 2.6.4 β-lactams -- 2.6.5 Glycopeptides -- 2.6.6 Rifamycins -- 2.6.7 Macrolides -- 2.6.8 Quinolones -- 2.6.9 Tetracyclines -- 2.7 Conclusion -- References -- 3 Drugs Resistance Against Viral Diseases -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Types of Viral Infections -- 3.3 History -- 3.4 Clinical Diagnostics -- 3.5 Pathogenesis -- 3.6 Management -- 3.6.1 Therapy and Chemoprophylaxis -- 3.6.2 Immunization -- 3.7 Viral Drug Therapy (Principles and Their Kinetics) -- 3.7.1 Viral Proteins -- 3.7.2 RNA Interference -- 3.7.3 Viral Mutagens -- 3.7.4 Cell Targets -- 3.7.5 Interferons -- 3.7.6 Maturation Inhibitors -- 3.8 Drug Resistance as Adaptive Process in Viral Infections (Possible Factors) -- 3.9 Evolution and Mechanism of Drug Resistance in Viral Infected Patients -- 3.9.1 Mutation in Virus Physiology and Biology -- 3.9.2 Adherence and Non-adherence of Antiviral Agent -- 3.9.3 Life Cycle Synchronization -- 3.10 Effect of Drug Resistance on Viral Replication and Pathogenesis -- 3.10.1 Molecular Mechanisms of Mutation Rates -- 3.11 Pharmacological Model for Viral Dynamics in Antiviral Treated Patients. , 3.11.1 Derivation of Models -- 3.12 Antiviral Drug Resistance Testing (In-Vitro Evaluation) in Viral Infected Patients -- 3.12.1 Principal of Drug Resistance Testing -- 3.13 Strategies for Improvement in Antiviral Agents Efficiency -- 3.14 Future of Antiviral Drug Resistance -- 3.15 Conclusion -- References -- 4 Drug Resistance in Protozoal Infections -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Malaria -- 4.2.1 Drugs Related to Malaria (Mode of Action and Mechanism of Resistance) -- 4.2.2 Resistance to Chloroquine -- 4.2.3 Resistance to Primaquine -- 4.2.4 Resistance to Arylamino Alcohols -- 4.2.5 Resistance to Antifolate Drugs -- 4.2.6 Resistance to Artemisinin-Based Combination Therapy (ACT) -- 4.3 Toxoplasmosis -- 4.3.1 Drugs Related to Toxoplasmosis (Mode of Action and Mechanism of Resistance) -- 4.3.2 Resistance to Pyrimethamine -- 4.3.3 Resistance to Atovaquone -- 4.4 Babesiosis -- 4.4.1 Drugs Related to Babesiosis (Mode of Action and Mechanism of Resistance) -- 4.4.2 Resistance to Diminazene Aceturate -- 4.4.3 Resistance to Atovaquone -- 4.5 Cystoisosporiasis -- 4.5.1 Drugs Related to Cystoisosporiasis (Mode of Action and Mechanism of Resistance) -- 4.5.2 Resistance to Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole -- 4.6 Trypanosomiasis -- 4.6.1 Drugs Related to Trypanosomiasis (Mode of Action and Mechanism of Resistance) -- 4.6.2 Resistance to Pentamidine -- 4.6.3 Resistance to Suramin -- 4.6.4 Resistance to Melarsoprol -- 4.7 Leishmaniasis -- 4.7.1 Drugs Related to Leishmaniasis (Mode of Action and Mechanism of Resistance) -- 4.7.2 Resistance to Sodium Stibogluconate -- 4.7.3 Resistance to Pentamidine -- 4.7.4 Resistance to Paromomycin -- 4.8 Giardiasis -- 4.8.1 Drugs Related to Giardiasis (Mode of Action and Mechanism of Resistance) -- 4.8.2 Resistance to Metronidazole -- 4.8.3 Resistance to Albendazole -- 4.9 Conclusion -- References. , 5 Antifungal Drugs: Mechanism of Action and Resistance -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Problems with Comparing Antifungal and Antibacterial Resistance -- 5.3 Assessing Resistance Factors -- 5.4 Common Drugs Used Against Fungal Infections -- 5.4.1 Allylamines -- 5.4.2 Azoles -- 5.4.3 Echinocandin -- 5.4.4 Flucytosine -- 5.4.5 Polyenes -- 5.5 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Drug Resistance in Ear, Nose, and Throat Infections -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Ear Infection -- 6.2.1 Otitis Media (Middle Ear Infection) -- 6.2.2 Swimmer's Ear (Outer Ear Infection) -- 6.2.3 Otomycosis (Outer Ear Infection) -- 6.3 Nose Infection -- 6.3.1 Acute Rhinosinusitis -- 6.3.2 Chronic Rhinosinusitis -- 6.3.3 Allergic Rhinitis -- 6.4 Throat Infection -- 6.4.1 Colds and Flu -- 6.4.2 Pharyngitis -- 6.5 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Drug Resistance in Skin Diseases -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Acne Vulgaris -- 7.2.1 Propionibacterium Acnes/Cutibacterium Acnes -- 7.2.2 Treatment Modalities of Acne -- 7.2.3 Antibiotic Resistance in Acne Vulgaris -- 7.2.4 Mechanism of Resistance to Tetracycline -- 7.3 Drug Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus -- 7.3.1 Mechanism of Action of Methicillin -- 7.3.2 Mechanism of Methicillin Resistance in S. aureus -- 7.3.3 Active Efflux System and Organization of Bacterial Cell Wall -- 7.3.4 Resistance to the β-Lactam Drugs -- 7.3.5 Resistance of S. aureus to Vancomycin -- 7.4 Skin Cancer -- 7.4.1 Melanoma Skin Cancer Treatment -- 7.4.2 Mechanism of Resistance to Chemotherapy in Melanoma -- 7.4.3 Resistance to Immunotherapy and Targeted Drug Therapy in Melanoma -- 7.4.4 Basal Cell Carcinoma -- 7.5 Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) -- 7.5.1 Treatment Modalities of HSV -- 7.5.2 Acyclovir-A Nucleoside Analog -- 7.5.3 Mechanism of Viral Resistance -- 7.6 Leprosy -- 7.6.1 Treatment Modalities -- 7.6.2 Mechanism of Action of Dapsone -- 7.6.3 Drug Resistance in M. leprae. , 7.6.4 Mechanism of Resistance -- 7.7 Conclusion -- References -- 8 Drugs Resistance in Lungs Diseases -- 8.1 Asthma -- 8.2 Severe Asthma in Children -- 8.2.1 Systemic Corticosteroids -- 8.2.2 Intramuscular Triamcinolone -- 8.2.3 Omalizumab -- 8.2.4 Mepolizumab -- 8.2.5 Dupilumab -- 8.3 Cystic Fibrosis/Bronchiectasis -- 8.3.1 Aminoglycosides -- 8.3.2 Fluoroquinolones -- 8.3.3 Beta-Lactams -- 8.3.4 Colistin -- 8.3.5 Other Antibiotics -- 8.4 Bronchitis -- 8.5 COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease) -- 8.6 Chronic Cough -- 8.7 Blocked Lung Artery (Pulmonary Embolus) -- 8.8 Pulmonary Edema -- 8.8.1 Vasodilators -- 8.8.2 Morphine and Opiates -- 8.8.3 Angiogensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors -- 8.8.4 Natriuretic Peptides -- 8.8.5 Inotropic and Inodilator Drugs -- 8.9 Treatment of Arrhythmias and/or Atrioventricular Resynchronization -- 8.10 Tuberculosis -- 8.11 Varied Lung Diseases -- 8.11.1 COVID-19-Coronavirus -- 8.11.2 Atelectasis -- 8.12 Lung Cancer -- 8.13 Sarcoidosis -- 8.14 Pleural Effusion -- 8.15 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Neurological Disorders: Biochemistry of Drug Resistance and Future Challenges -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Huntington's Disease -- 9.2.1 Treatment of Huntington Diseases and Drug Resistance -- 9.2.2 Tominersen (IONIS-HTTRx) -- 9.3 Parkinson Disease (PD) -- 9.3.1 Mechanisms of Disease and Genetics -- 9.3.2 Resistance Mechanism of PD Drugs -- 9.3.3 Monoamine Oxidase B (MAO-B) Inhibitors and Catechol-O-Methyl Transferase (COMT) Inhibitors -- 9.4 Epilepsy -- 9.4.1 Molecular Mechanisms of Epilepsy Drug Resistance Through Ion Channels, Transporters, Receptors and Metabolic Enzymes -- 9.5 Schizophrenia -- 9.5.1 Treatment of Schizophrenia -- 9.6 Conclusion -- References -- 10 Drug Resistance in Kidney Diseases -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Genetic Basis of Kidney Disorders -- 10.3 Antiviral Drugs and Kidney Disease. , 10.4 Bacterial Resistance in Kidney Diseases -- 10.5 Drugs Resistance in Kidney Cancer -- 10.6 Anti-cytomegalovirus (CMV) Drug Resistance -- 10.7 Drug Resistance Prevention -- 10.8 Conclusion -- References -- 11 Drugs Resistance in Heart Diseases -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Types of Heart Diseases -- 11.2.1 Congenital Heart Disease -- 11.2.2 Drugs Used in Congenital Heart Diseases -- 11.2.3 Dilated Cardiomyopathy -- 11.2.4 Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) -- 11.2.5 Cardiac Arrhythmia -- 11.2.6 Myocardial Infarction -- 11.2.7 Hypertension -- References -- 12 Drug Resistance in Liver Diseases -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Hepatocellular Carcinoma -- 12.2.1 Multidrug Resistance Phenotype -- 12.2.2 ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) Transporters and Drug Resistance -- 12.2.3 Mechanism of Doxorubicin Antitumor Effects -- 12.2.4 Molecular Mechanisms of Doxorubicin Resistance -- 12.2.5 Resistance Mechanism of Etoposide -- 12.3 Hepatitis B -- 12.3.1 Molecular Mechanisms of Resistance Against (Nucleic Acids) NAs -- 12.4 Drug Resistance in Infectious Liver Cirrhosis -- 12.4.1 What is Liver Cirrhosis? -- 12.4.2 Antibiotics Resistance in Liver Cirrhosis -- 12.4.3 Quinolones -- 12.5 Pyogenic Liver Abscess -- 12.5.1 Bacteriology -- 12.5.2 K. Pneumoniae Genotype K1: An Emerging Pathogen that Causes Septic Ocular or Central Nervous System Complications from Pyogenic Liver Abscess -- 12.5.3 Metronidazole Medicate Utilized for Treatment of Liver Abscess Disease -- 12.6 Conclusions -- References -- 13 Drug Resistance in Cancer -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.1.1 Drug Resistance in Cancer -- 13.1.2 High Level of Drug Efflux -- 13.1.3 Lower Level of Drug Efflux -- 13.1.4 Mutations in Tumor Cells (Epigenetic Alteration) -- 13.1.5 Non-coding RNA Involvement -- 13.1.6 Exosome Derived miRNA Involvement -- 13.1.7 Apoptotic Arrest -- 13.1.8 Drug Inactivation -- 13.1.9 Multiple Drug Resistance. , 13.2 Mechanisms of Cancer Drug Resistance.

Note: Intro -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- About the Book -- Abbreviations -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Entry Routes of Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Characterization of Entry Routes -- 1.2.1 Manure -- 1.2.2 Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) -- 1.2.3 Aquaculture -- 1.2.4 Airborne ARGs -- 1.3 Mutual Interactions: A Conceptual Model for Understanding Entry Routes of Antibiotics, ARB, and ARGs -- 1.4 Summary and Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 2: Antibiotics Use in Hospitals and Their Presence in the Associated Waste -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Antibiotics and Their Use in Hospitals: An Overview -- 2.2.1 Classification of Antibiotics -- 2.2.1.1 Aminoglycosides -- 2.2.1.2 β-Lactams -- 2.2.1.3 Chloramphenicol -- 2.2.1.4 Macrolides -- 2.2.1.5 Quinolones -- 2.2.1.6 Rifamycin -- 2.2.1.7 Sulfonamides -- 2.2.1.8 Tetracyclines -- 2.2.1.9 Triazole -- 2.3 Misuse of Antibiotics in Hospitals -- 2.4 Types of Wastes Generated in Hospitals -- 2.4.1 Chemical Waste -- 2.4.2 Biological Waste -- 2.5 Environmental Burden of Hospital Waste -- 2.5.1 Antibiotics -- 2.5.2 Development of Antibiotic Resistance in Environment -- 2.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 3: Antimicrobial and Antibiotic Resistance Genes in the Environment -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Antimicrobial Resistance -- 3.3 Origin of Resistance Genes -- 3.4 Horizontal Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance Genes -- 3.5 Assembly of Factors for Formation of Resistance -- 3.6 Compatibility for Development of Resistance -- 3.7 Hazardous Effects of Environments to Human Health -- 3.8 Resistance Genes in Different Environments/Habitats -- 3.8.1 Ocean -- 3.8.2 Air -- 3.8.3 Soil -- 3.9 Pathways of Resistance -- 3.10 Antimicrobials Co-selectors and Resistant Pathogens in Environment -- 3.11 Mitigating Discharge of Antimicrobials in Environment. , 3.12 Antibiotic and Antibiotic Extended Resistomes -- 3.13 Novel Genes Formation Related to Antimicrobial Pathogens -- 3.14 Aminoglycosides Affected by Methylase Activity of rRNA -- 3.15 Methyltransferase Activity Against Linezolid -- 3.16 Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance Associated with Efflux Pumps -- 3.17 Proteins Protecting Qnr Topoisomerases -- 3.18 CTX-M ESBLs -- 3.19 Future of Resistant "Superbugs" -- 3.20 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 4: Global and Temporal Trends in the Use of Antibiotics and Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Genetic Basis of Antibiotic Resistance -- 4.3 Biochemical Routes Associated with Antibiotic Resistance -- 4.3.1 Alteration of Antibiotic Agents -- 4.3.1.1 Chemical Modification of Antibiotic Molecules -- 4.3.2 Inhibiting the Penetration/Attachment of Antibiotic Molecule to Specific Target -- 4.3.3 Modification of Target Sites -- 4.3.3.1 Protection of Target Sites -- 4.4 Global and Temporal Trends in the Use of Antibiotics -- 4.5 Global and Temporal Trends of Antimicrobial Resistance -- 4.6 Trends in Soil, Water, and Air -- 4.7 Consequences of Antibiotic Resistance -- 4.8 Steps to Overcome the Antibiotic Resistance -- 4.9 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 5: Trends in Antimicrobial Use in Food Animals, Aquaculture, and Hospital Waste -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Use of Antimicrobials in Production of Animal Food -- 5.2.1 Beef -- 5.2.2 Veal -- 5.2.3 Dairy -- 5.2.4 Poultry -- 5.2.5 Swine -- 5.3 Antimicrobials Approachability and Approval in Animals -- 5.4 Antimicrobials Use Within Animals, Emergence and Spread of Antimicrobial Resistant -- 5.5 Acquisition of Resistance by Direct Contact with Animals -- 5.6 Transmission of Antibiotic Resistance Through the Food Chain -- 5.7 Antimicrobials Usage in Aquaculture -- 5.7.1 Use of Antibiotics. , 5.8 Strategies of Administering Antibiotics in Aquaculture -- 5.8.1 Medicated Feed (Oral Administration) -- 5.8.2 Injection -- 5.8.3 Immersion -- 5.9 Impacts of Antibiotics -- 5.10 Antibiotic Resistance in Aquaculture -- 5.11 Antimicrobial Use in Hospital Waste -- 5.12 Antibiotic Resistance in Hospital Waste -- 5.13 Conclusions -- 5.14 Recommendations -- References -- Chapter 6: Antimicrobial/Antibiotic Resistance Genes Due to Manure and Agricultural Waste Applications -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Antibiotics Used in Veterinary Practices vs. Antibiotics Used in Medicine -- 6.3 Drug Resistance in Agriculture Wastes and Waste-Amended Soil -- 6.4 Recent Regulation in the EU Aiming Animal Waste Application in Agriculture -- 6.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 7: Bio-monitoring of Antibiotics and AMR/ARGs -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)/Antibiotic Resistance Genes (ARGs) -- 7.3 Occurrence and Distribution of Antibiotics -- 7.4 Environmental Drivers of Antimicrobial Resistance -- 7.5 Risks to Human and Animal Health -- 7.5.1 Food from Agricultural Crops -- 7.5.2 Food from Aquatic Population -- 7.5.3 Drinking Water Contamination -- 7.5.4 Recreational Places Contamination -- 7.6 Bio-monitoring of Different Antibiotics -- 7.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8: Mechanism of Antibiotics Uptake in Plants -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Classification and Types of Antibiotics -- 8.2.1 Based on Their Spectrum of Activity -- 8.2.2 Based on Their Mechanism of Action -- 8.2.3 Based on Their Chemical Formula/Structure -- 8.3 Mechanism of Uptake and Translocation of Antibiotics in Plants -- 8.3.1 Root Uptake -- 8.3.2 Translocation of Antibiotics Within Plants -- 8.3.3 Factors Affecting Antibiotic Uptake by Plants -- 8.4 Metabolism of Antibiotics in Plants -- 8.5 Conclusion -- References. , Chapter 9: Uptake of Gentamicin, Oxytetracycline, and Tylosin by Lettuce and Radish Plants -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Materials and Methods -- 9.2.1 Pot Experiment -- 9.2.2 Antibiotic Analysis in Plant Tissues -- 9.2.3 Statistical Analysis -- 9.3 Results and Discussion -- 9.3.1 Lettuce -- 9.3.1.1 Gentamicin in Lettuce Leaves and Roots -- 9.3.1.2 Oxytetracycline in Lettuce Leaves and Roots -- 9.3.1.3 Tylosin in Lettuce Leaves and Roots -- 9.3.1.4 Radish -- 9.3.1.5 Gentamicin in Radish Roots and Leaves -- 9.3.1.6 Oxytetracycline in Radish Roots and Leaves -- 9.3.1.7 Tylosin in Radish Roots and Leaves -- 9.3.1.8 Comparison of the Concentration of Gentamicin, Oxytetracycline, and Tylosin in Lettuce and Radish -- In Lettuce -- In Radish -- 9.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 10: Bioavailability of Antibiotics and Their Toxicity -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Penicillin -- 10.2.1 Bioavailability and Toxicity -- 10.2.2 Adverse Effects and Toxicity -- 10.3 Cephalosporins -- 10.3.1 Absorption and Bioavailability -- 10.3.2 Adverse Effects and Toxicity -- 10.4 Carbapenems -- 10.4.1 Adverse Effects and Toxicity -- 10.5 Monobactams -- 10.6 Aminoglycosides -- 10.6.1 Absorption and Bioavailability -- 10.6.2 Adverse Effects and Toxicity -- 10.7 Tetracyclines -- 10.7.1 Absorption and Bioavailability -- 10.7.2 Adverse Effects and Toxicity -- 10.8 Chloramphenicol -- 10.8.1 Adverse Effects and Toxicity -- 10.9 Macrolides -- 10.9.1 Absorption and Bioavailability -- 10.9.2 Adverse Effects and Toxicity -- 10.10 Glycopeptides -- 10.10.1 Vancomycin -- 10.11 Sulfonamides -- 10.11.1 Absorption and Bioavailability -- 10.11.2 Adverse Effects and Toxicity -- 10.12 Quinolones -- 10.12.1 Absorption and Bioavailability -- 10.12.2 Adverse Effects and Toxicity -- 10.13 Antimycobacterial Agents -- 10.13.1 Absorption and Bioavailability -- 10.13.2 Adverse Effects and Toxicity. , References -- Chapter 11: Effect of Antibiotics on Plant Growth in a Water Culture -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Materials and Methods -- 11.2.1 Experimental Design -- 11.2.2 Nutrient Solution -- 11.2.3 Extraction Methods -- 11.2.4 Tissue Analysis -- 11.2.5 Statistical Analysis -- 11.3 Results and Discussion -- 11.3.1 Enrofloxacin Uptake -- 11.3.2 Tylosin Uptake -- 11.3.3 Oxytetracycline Uptake -- 11.3.4 Crop Biomass and Phytotoxicity -- 11.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 12: Epidemiological, Ecological, and Public Health Effects of Antibiotics and AMR/ARGs -- 12.1 Epidemiological Impact of Antibiotics and ARGs -- 12.1.1 Pharmacoepidemiology and Evolution of Antibiotic Use -- 12.1.2 Economic Epidemiology -- 12.2 Ecological Impact of Antibiotics and ARGs -- 12.2.1 Impact on Natural Ecosystems -- 12.2.1.1 Importance of Microbial Diversity in Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems -- 12.2.1.2 Impact on Agroecosystems -- 12.2.1.3 Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems -- 12.2.1.4 Impact on Human and Animal Microbiomes -- 12.2.2 Impact on Artificial Ecosystems -- 12.3 Public Health Impact of Antibiotics and ARGs -- 12.3.1 Consequences of Expanding Resistome -- 12.3.2 Consequences of an Altered Microbiome -- 12.3.3 Consequences of Antibiotic Toxicity -- References -- Chapter 13: Surveillance and Environmental Risk Assessment of Antibiotics and AMR/ARGs Related with MRSA: One Health Perspective -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Acquisition and Dissemination of Antimicrobial Resistance -- 13.3 One Health Approach -- 13.4 Antibiotics, AMR, and ARGs in the Environment -- 13.4.1 Soil Environment -- 13.4.2 Aquatic Environment and Wastewater Treatment Plants -- 13.4.3 Animal Farm Environment -- 13.4.4 Wild Animals -- 13.5 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus -- 13.5.1 MRSA in Soil and Water Environment -- 13.5.2 MRSA in Livestock -- 13.5.3 MRSA in Wildlife. , 13.6 Conclusions.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Chapter 1: Xenobiotics, Types, and Mode of Action -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.1.1 Types of Xenobiotics -- 1.1.1.1 Drugs -- 1.1.1.2 Environmental Pollutants -- 1.1.1.3 Food Additives -- 1.1.1.4 Hydrocarbons -- 1.1.1.5 Pesticides -- 1.1.1.6 Synthetic Polymers -- 1.1.1.7 Oil Mixtures -- 1.1.2 Other Xenobiotic Compounds -- 1.1.3 Hazards from Xenobiotics -- 1.1.3.1 Toxicity -- 1.1.3.2 Carcinogenicity -- 1.1.3.3 Progressive Buildup in the Environment -- 1.1.3.4 Bioaccumulation -- 1.1.4 Role in Biological System/Mode of Action -- 1.1.4.1 Xenobiotics-Protein Interaction -- 1.1.4.2 Transport Protein -- 1.1.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2: Atmospheric Pollutants and Its Transport Mechanisms in Soil Along the Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau, and Its Surroundi... -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Atmospheric Pollutants and Its Sources -- 2.2.1 PAHs -- 2.2.2 POPs -- 2.2.3 Inorganic Pollutants -- 2.3 Driving Mechanisms and Temperature Sensitivity -- 2.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3: HCH and DDT Residues in Indian Soil: Atmospheric Input and Risk Assessment -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Methodology -- 3.2.1 Sample Collection, Column Cleanup, and Instrumental Analysis -- 3.2.2 Risk Assessment -- 3.3 Results and Discussion -- 3.3.1 HCH and DDT: Production and Usage -- 3.3.2 Region-Specific Distribution and Atmospheric Input -- 3.3.2.1 Northern India -- 3.3.3 Eastern and North-Eastern India -- 3.3.4 Southern India -- 3.3.5 Central and Western India -- 3.4 Ecological Risk Assessment -- 3.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4: Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance Genes (ARGs) in Soil: Occurrence, Fate, and Effects -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Physical Properties of Antibiotics -- 4.2.1 Tetracyclines -- 4.2.2 Sulfonamides -- 4.2.3 Aminoglycosides -- 4.2.4 Fluoroquinolones. , 4.3 Natural Antibiotics Occurrence in Soil -- 4.4 Anthropogenic Antibiotics Occurrence in Soil -- 4.5 Antibiotics Fate in the Soil Environment -- 4.6 Antibiotic Resistance Genes (ARGs) in the Soil Environment -- 4.7 Environmental and Public Health Effects of Antibiotic Resistance Genes Pollution -- 4.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 5: Human Being as Biomonitor of Soil Xenobiotics -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Soil/Dust in Populated Zones: Natural Sink of Xenobiotics -- 5.1.2 Organic and Inorganic Xenobiotics in Soil/Dust have a link with Human Activities -- 5.2 Human Exposure to Soil/Dust-Bound Xenobiotics via Skin Contact, Ingestion and Inhalation Routes of Exposure -- 5.2.1 Skin Contact and Dermal Intake of Xenobiotics -- 5.2.2 Ingestion (Oral Intake) -- 5.2.3 Inhalation Route of Exposure -- 5.3 Soil-Bound Xenobiotics: Health Risk Factor for General Population -- 5.3.1 Construction Workers (and Child Labor) in Developing Countries FaceIncreased Carcinogenic Risk Associated with Soil/Dust... -- 5.3.2 Current and Emerging Sources of Xenobiotics -- 5.4 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 6: Use of Earthworms in Biomonitoring of Soil Xenobiotics -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Earthworms as Bioindicator of Soil Pollutants -- 6.3 Exposure and Uptake of Xenobiotics -- 6.4 Bioaccumulation of Xenobiotics -- 6.5 Suitability of Earthworms as Accumulation Indicators -- 6.6 Xenobiotic/Chemicals Accumulating in Earthworms -- 6.7 Factor Affecting Bioaccumulation of Xenobiotics by Earthworms? -- 6.8 Biomarkers in Earthworms for Impact Assessment of Soil Xenobiotics -- 6.9 Metallothioneins -- 6.10 Acetylcholinesterase -- 6.11 Hemoglobin Oxidation -- 6.12 Glutathione S-transferase (GST) and Antioxidant enzymes -- 6.13 Biomarkers of Toxic Metal Exposure -- 6.14 Biomarkers of Pesticide Exposure -- 6.15 Cellular Biomarkers -- 6.16 Biomarkers of Genotoxicity. , References -- Chapter 7: Emerging Metagenomic Strategies for Assessing Xenobiotic Contaminated Sites -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Approaches to Metagenomics -- 7.3 Metagenomics of Xenobiotics -- 7.3.1 PAHs -- 7.3.2 Organochlorinated Compounds -- 7.3.3 Nitroaromatics -- 7.4 Challenges and Future Prospects -- References -- Chapter 8: An Overview of Extraction, Clean-up and Instrumentation Techniques for Quantification of Soil-Bound Xenobiotic Comp... -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Sample Pretreatment -- 8.3 Solvent Extraction -- 8.3.1 Soxhlet Extraction -- 8.3.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction -- 8.3.3 Pressurised Liquid Extraction -- 8.3.4 Microwave-Assisted Extraction -- 8.4 Comparison of Extraction Methods -- 8.5 Clean-up Procedures -- 8.6 Instrumental Analysis -- 8.6.1 Gas Chromatography -- 8.6.2 Liquid Chromatography -- 8.7 Current Approaches -- 8.8 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 9: Xenobiotics in the Food Chain: Quantitative Analysis, Toxic Impact, and Usage History -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Source Perspectives -- 9.3 Toxicological Behavior and Quantitative Analysis of Xenobiotics -- 9.4 Historical Overview of Xenobiotic Usage in the Food Chain -- References -- Chapter 10: Biphasic Dose-Response Phenomenon Induced by Xenobiotics and Its Application in Soil Risk Assessment -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Biphasic Dose-Response Universality -- 10.3 Biphasic Dose Response and Its Significance in Environmental Science and Risk Assessment Practices -- 10.4 Progress in Biphasic Dose Response Using Growth as End Point -- 10.5 Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Biphasic Responses -- 10.6 Receptor-Mediated and Cell Signaling-Mediated Biphasic Mechanisms -- 10.6.1 Antagonist-Mediated Enhancement of Inhibitory Responses -- 10.6.2 Xenobiotic-Mediated Biphasic Dose-Response Mechanisms Using In Vivo Model. , 10.6.3 Xenobiotic-Mediated Biphasic Dose-Response Mechanisms Using In Vitro Model -- 10.7 Hormesis Application in Xenobiotic-Contaminated Soil Risk Assessment -- 10.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 11: Agrochemicals and Soil Microbes: Interaction for Soil Health -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Agrochemical and Soil Microbes -- 11.3 Effect of Agrochemicals on Soil Biological Process in Soil -- 11.4 Effect of Agrochemicals on Soil Enzymes -- 11.5 Role of Soil Microbes for Detoxification of Agrochemicals -- 11.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 12: Soil Microbial and Enzymatic Diversity as Affected by the Presence of Xenobiotics -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Xenobiotics in Soil -- 12.3 Response of Soil to Xenobiotics´ Presence -- 12.3.1 Influence of Xenobiotics on Microflora Diversity and Activity -- 12.3.2 Changes of Enzyme Activities -- 12.4 How to Preserve Soil Microbial and Enzymatic Diversity in Contaminated Soils -- 12.5 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 13: Current Approaches for the Assessment of In Situ Remediation of Xenobiotics -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Tools for the Assessment of In Situ Remediation of Xenobiotics -- 13.3 Evaluation of Xenobiotic Concentration -- 13.4 Hydrogeochemical Methods to Assess In Situ Transformation of Xenobiotics -- 13.5 Application of Tracer Technology to Assess Natural Attenuation -- 13.6 Compound-Specific Stable Isotope Analysis -- 13.7 Enantiomer Fraction -- 13.8 Metabolite Analysis -- 13.9 Microbiological Methods -- 13.9.1 Laboratory Methods -- 13.9.2 In Situ Microcosms Technique -- 13.10 Molecular Methods -- 13.11 Integration of Various Approaches to Assess In Situ Remediation of Xenobiotics -- 13.12 Conclusion -- References. , Chapter 14: Transgenic Approaches for Building Plant Armor and Weaponry to Combat Xenobiotic Pollutants: Current Trends and Fu... -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Phytoremediation Strategies -- 14.3 Wild Versus Transgenic Plants -- 14.4 Approaches for Xenobiotic Remediation -- 14.4.1 Transgenic Plants -- 14.4.1.1 Which Crops Should Be Targeted? -- 14.4.1.2 Choosing the Target Gene for Transgenic Expression/Xenobiotic Remediation -- 14.4.1.3 Fine-Tuning of Transgene in Transgenic Plants for Better Response -- 14.4.2 Genetic Engineering of Plant-Associated Microbes: Additional Troops -- 14.4.2.1 Engineered Rhizospheric Bacterium -- 14.4.2.2 Engineering Endophytes -- 14.5 Translation From Lab to Land: Unmet Challenges -- 14.6 Advanced Techniques -- 14.7 Future Perspectives: Synthetic Biology for Designing Ultimate Plant Genome -- References -- Chapter 15: Bioavailability/Phytostabilization of Xenobiotics in Soil -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 Xenobiotics in the Environment -- 15.2.1 Sources of Xenobiotic -- 15.2.1.1 Direct Sources -- 15.2.1.2 Indirect Sources -- 15.3 Fate of Xenobiotics in Environment -- 15.4 Bioavailability/Bioaccessibility of Xenobiotics -- 15.4.1 The Role of Organic Matter in the Fate of Xenobiotics in Soil -- 15.4.2 Cationic Effects Occurred in Soil Solution -- 15.4.3 Basic Ionic Interaction -- 15.5 Mechanism of Phytoremediation of Contaminated Soils -- 15.5.1 Phytosequestration -- 15.5.2 Phytodegradation -- 15.5.3 Phytovolatilization -- 15.5.4 Phytostabilization -- 15.5.4.1 Soil Stabilization -- 15.5.4.2 Infiltration Control -- 15.5.4.3 Successful Cases -- 15.6 SWOT Analysis: Phytostabilization in Use -- 15.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 16: Biodegradation of Xenobiotics in Soil by Fungi -- 16.1 Introduction -- 16.2 Biodegradation -- 16.3 Fungi in Biodegradation. , 16.4 Degradation of Important Soil Xenobiotics Mediated by Fungal Enzymes.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Acknowledgment -- Contents -- Part I: Introduction to Plastic pollution -- Chapter 1: Emerging Issue of Microplastic in Sediments and Surface Water in South Asia: A Review of Status, Research Needs, and Data Gaps -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Microplastic Distribution in the Water Bodies of South Asia -- 1.3 Microplastics in the Sediments of South Asia -- 1.4 Abundance of Microplastics in South Asia -- 1.5 Types of Microplastics Based on Shape in South Asia -- 1.6 Sources of Microplastics in South Asia -- 1.7 Microplastic Trends Based on Polymer Type in South Asia -- 1.8 Research Gaps Found in South Asia -- 1.9 Possible Research Solution -- 1.10 Research Needs Regarding MP Quantification -- 1.11 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2: Extraction, Enumeration, and Identification Methods for Monitoring Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Data Collection -- 2.2.1 Selection of Sampling Areas and Main Parameters During the Process -- 2.2.2 Sampling for Microplastics -- 2.2.3 Contamination -- 2.2.4 Laboratory Conditions and Main Parameters -- 2.3 Microplastics Sampling Methods in Aquatic Ecosystems -- 2.3.1 Sampling Methods in Water Surface and Water Column -- 2.3.2 Sampling Methods in Sediment -- 2.4 Separation of Microplastics from Samples -- 2.4.1 Sieving -- 2.4.2 Elutriation -- 2.5 Density Separation -- 2.5.1 Flotation -- 2.5.2 Removal of Organic Matter -- 2.5.2.1 Acid and Alkaline Digestion -- 2.5.2.2 Wet Oxidation Peroxide (WPO) -- 2.5.2.3 Treatment with Fenton Reagent (Fe2 + with H2O2) -- 2.6 Filtration -- 2.7 Identification, Chemical Characterization, and Quantification -- 2.7.1 Microscopy Analysis -- 2.7.2 Instrumental Analysis of Microplastics -- 2.7.2.1 Infrared Microscopy: Transmission/ATR/Micro-Fourier Infrared Transform (μ-FTIR) Spectroscopy -- 2.7.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy. , 2.7.2.3 Thermo-analytical Methods: Pyrolysis Mass Spectrometry Gas Chromatography (Pyr-GC/MS) and Thermo-extraction Desorption Gas Chromatography (TED-GC/MS)) -- 2.8 Results and Accurate Reporting Criteria -- 2.9 Recommendations and Future Works -- References -- Chapter 3: Monitoring of Microplastic Pollution -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Microplastic Sampling -- 3.2.1 Non-discrete Sampling Instruments -- 3.2.1.1 Nets -- 3.2.1.2 Pumping Systems -- 3.2.2 Discrete Sampling Instruments -- 3.2.3 Limitations -- 3.3 Extraction of Microplastic -- 3.4 Identification of Microplastic -- 3.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman Spectroscopy -- 3.4.2 Pyr-GC MS -- 3.4.3 Remote Sensing Technology -- 3.5 Monitoring Through Marine Animals -- 3.6 Proposed Solution to Microplastic Pollution -- References -- Chapter 4: Polymer Types of Microplastic in Coastal Areas -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Polymer Composition of MPs in Coastal Ecosystems -- References -- Chapter 5: Evaluation of Different Metrics to Study Microplastics as an Environmental Forensic Tool -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Source, Sinks, and Pathways -- 5.3 Role of Metrics in Environmental Forensics -- 5.4 Water as Metrics for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool -- 5.5 Soil as a Metric for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool -- 5.6 Air as a Metric for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool -- 5.7 Forensic Techniques to Investigate Microplastic Origin -- 5.8 Microplastic Detection Applications in Different Fields -- 5.8.1 Environmental Management Systems -- 5.8.2 Agricultural and Geological Applications -- 5.8.3 Epidemiological Studies -- 5.8.4 Urban Development -- 5.8.5 Legislation -- 5.9 Conclusion -- References -- Part II: Environmental Occurrence. , Chapter 6: Atmospheric Microplastic Distribution, Fate, and Behavior in Context to Pollution -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Dynamic Nature of Plastic -- 6.3 The Behavior of Microplastics in a Terrestrial Environment -- 6.4 Terrestrial Sources of Microplastics -- 6.4.1 Indoor Sources of Microplastic -- 6.4.2 Personal Care Products -- 6.4.3 Paints -- 6.4.4 Landfill -- 6.4.5 Tire Wear -- 6.4.6 City Dust -- 6.4.7 Agricultural -- 6.4.8 Industrial -- 6.4.9 Wastewater Treatment Facility -- 6.5 Ecological Impact of Microplastics -- 6.6 Human Health Impact of Microplastic -- 6.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 7: Microplastic (MP) Pollution in the Context of Occurrence, Distribution, Composition and Concentration in Surface Waters and Sediments: A Global Overview -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Microplastic (MP) Pollution in Surface Waters -- 7.2.1 MP Occurrence and Distribution in Surface Waters -- 7.2.2 MP Composition in Surface Waters -- 7.2.3 MP Concentration in Surface Waters -- 7.3 Microplastic Pollution in the World Sediments -- 7.3.1 MP Occurrence and Distribution in Sediments -- 7.3.2 MP Composition in Sediments -- 7.3.3 MP Concentration in Sediments -- 7.4 Conclusion -- References -- Web -- Chapter 8: Microplastic Pollution in the Black Sea: An Overview of the Current Situation -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Microplastics -- 8.3 The Black Sea -- 8.4 The Current Status of Microplastic Pollution in the Black Sea -- 8.5 Abundance -- 8.6 Sampling -- 8.7 Analysing -- 8.8 Microplastics in Marine Organisms of the Black Sea -- 8.9 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9: Occurrence and Fate of Microplastics in Freshwater Resources -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Basic Source of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 9.3 Atmospheric Microplastics as a Source of Microplastic in Water -- 9.3.1 Atmospheric Microplastic Accordance. , 9.3.2 Atmospheric Microplastic Characteristics and Sources -- 9.3.3 Atmospheric Microplastic Entrance to Water -- 9.4 Microplastics in Soil as a Source of Microplastic in Water -- 9.4.1 Accordance of Microplastics in Soil -- 9.4.2 Characteristics and Sources of Microplastics in Soil -- 9.4.3 Soil's Microplastic Entrance to Water -- 9.5 Accordance of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 9.6 Characteristics of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 9.7 Health Problems of Microplastics in Water -- 9.8 Fate of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 9.9 Technologies for Microplastic Removal from Water -- 9.9.1 Microplastic Removal in Wastewater Treatment Plants -- 9.9.2 Membrane Filters for Microplastic Removal -- 9.9.3 Adsorption and Ingestion of Microplastics by Aquatic Organisms -- 9.9.4 Microplastic Removal by Coagulation -- 9.9.5 Microplastic Degradation -- 9.9.6 Controlling Microplastic Entrance to the Environment -- 9.10 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10: Occurrence of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Freshwaters -- 10.1.2 The Beginning of Microplastic Research in Freshwater -- 10.2 Microplastic Sampling and Analysis -- 10.2.1 Water and Sediment Sampling -- 10.2.2 Water and Sediment Treatment -- 10.2.3 Biota Sampling and Treatment -- 10.2.4 Chemical Characterization -- 10.3 Spatio-temporal Distribution of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 10.3.1 Spatial Occurrence of Microplastics in Water -- 10.3.2 Temporal Sampling of Microplastics in Waters -- 10.3.3 Spatial Occurrence of Microplastics in Sediment -- 10.3.4 Temporal Sampling of Microplastics in Sediment -- 10.4 Origin of Pollution -- 10.5 Impact of Microplastics to Freshwater Living Resources -- 10.5.1 Freshwater Taxa Examined by Lentic or Lotic Habitat -- 10.5.2 The Taxa Examined by Scientific Literature -- 10.5.2.1 Microorganisms -- 10.5.2.2 Invertebrates -- 10.5.2.3 Vertebrates. , 10.5.2.4 Plants -- 10.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 11: Occurrence of Microplastic Pollution in Coastal Areas -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Microplastics -- 11.2.1 Primary Microplastics -- 11.2.2 Secondary Microplastics -- 11.3 Coastal Systems -- 11.4 Microplastics in Coastal Systems -- 11.4.1 Seagrass -- 11.4.2 Microplastics in the Beach Sediments -- 11.4.3 Microplastics in Estuary Areas -- References -- Chapter 12: Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Coastal Areas -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 General Aspects of the Modeling of the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Coastal Environment -- 12.2.1 Sources and Sinks of Plastics in Coastal Areas -- 12.2.2 Key Processes in the Modeling of the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in the Coastal Environment -- 12.2.3 Type of Coastal System -- 12.2.4 Particle Properties -- 12.2.5 Fate and Transport Models in Coastal Areas -- 12.2.5.1 Eulerian Transport Models -- 12.2.5.2 Lagrangian Transport Models -- 12.2.5.3 Source-Pathway-Receptor-Consequence Models -- 12.2.5.4 Data Requirements and Tools for Numerical Simulations -- 12.3 Final Remarks -- References -- Chapter 13: Occurrence of Microplastic Pollution in Marine Water -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Microplastic -- 13.3 Types of Microplastic -- 13.3.1 Primary Microplastic -- 13.3.2 Secondary Microplastic -- 13.3.3 Nanoplastic -- 13.4 Sources -- 13.4.1 Primary Sources -- 13.4.2 Secondary Sources -- 13.4.2.1 Microplastic Dust -- 13.4.2.2 Water Treatment Plants -- 13.4.2.3 Wear and Tear from Normal Use -- 13.4.2.4 Secondary Microplastic -- 13.5 Occurrence -- 13.6 Proposed Solution -- References -- Part III: Risk Assessment and Health Impact -- Chapter 14: Microplastic Pollution and Contamination of Seafood (Including Fish, Sharks, Mussels, Oysters, Shrimps and Seaweeds): A Global Overview -- 14.1 Introduction. , 14.2 Microplastics (MPs) in Seafood (Fish, Sharks, Mussels, Oysters, Clams, Prawns, Shrimps and Seaweeds): A Global Overview.