Note: Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Sources, Occurrence, and Analysis of Microplastics in Freshwater Environments: A Review -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Sources of Microplastic -- 1.2.1 Primary Sources -- 1.2.1.1 Microplastics from Personal Care Products -- 1.2.1.2 Microplastics from Plastic Resins -- 1.2.2 Secondary Sources -- 1.2.2.1 Microplastics from Degradation of Plastic Debris -- 1.2.2.2 Microplastics from Textile and Domestic Washing -- 1.3 Pathways of Microplastics into Freshwater Environments -- 1.4 Microplastic Analytical Methods in Freshwater -- 1.4.1 Sampling of Microplastic -- 1.4.1.1 Water Samples -- 1.4.1.2 Sediment Samples -- 1.4.2 Sample Preparation -- 1.4.2.1 Extraction of Microplastics -- 1.4.2.2 Removal of Organic Debris -- 1.4.3 Identification of Microplastic -- 1.4.3.1 Visual Sorting -- 1.4.3.2 Identification of Microplastics by Chemical Composition -- 1.5 Occurrence of Microplastic in Freshwater Environments -- 1.5.1 Microplastic in Lakes -- 1.5.2 Microplastic in Rivers -- 1.6 Conclusions and Recommendations -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 2 Microplastics in Freshwater Environments - With Special Focus on the Indian Scenario -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 The Nature and Production of Microplastics -- 2.3 Global Ecological Impacts of Plastic Pollution -- 2.4 Socio-Economic Impacts of Plastic Pollution -- 2.5 Freshwater Plastic Pollution -- 2.5.1 Sources of Freshwater Microplastics -- 2.5.2 Studies on Freshwater Plastic Pollution from around the World -- 2.5.3 The Problem of Freshwater Microplastics in Developing Countries -- 2.5.4 Status of India's Freshwater Plastic Problem -- 2.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects -- References -- Chapter 3 Microplastic Contamination in the Marine Food Web: : Its Impact on Human Health -- 3.1 Introduction. , 3.1.1 Microplastic in the Marine Food Web -- 3.1.2 Toxic Impacts on Primary Producers -- 3.1.3 Toxic Impacts on Consumers -- 3.1.4 Associated Risk -- 3.2 Human Health Implication -- 3.3 Conclusion and Future Perspective -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 4 Microplastic in the Aquatic Ecosystem and Human Health Implications -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Sources and Food-Chain Entry -- 4.3 Human Health Implications -- 4.3.1 Digestive System -- 4.3.2 Respiratory System -- 4.3.3 Nervous System -- 4.3.4 Placental Barrier -- 4.3.5 Other Health Impacts -- 4.4 Future Directions and Plausible Solutions -- 4.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 5 Interactions of Microplastics Toward an Ecological Risk in Soil Diversity: An Appraisal -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Microplastic-Types and Properties -- 5.3 Microplastic Sources and Accumulation in Soil and Sediments -- 5.4 Migration of Microplastics' Fate in Environment -- 5.5 Migration of Microplastics through Soil -- 5.6 Soil Analysis Methodology -- 5.7 Collection of Samples -- 5.8 Sample Preparation -- 5.8.1 Drying -- 5.8.2 Sieving -- 5.8.3 Soil Aggregates Dismantling and Density Separation -- 5.8.4 Removing Soil Organic Matter (SOM) -- 5.8.5.1 Microscopy -- 5.8.5.2 Spectroscopy -- 5.8.5.3 Thermoanalysis -- 5.8.5 Microplastics Quantification -- 5.9 Interactions and Impacts on Soil Diversity -- 5.9.1 Soil Properties -- 5.9.2 Soil Microbial Activity -- 5.9.3 Microplastics Entered Via Food Chains -- 5.9.4 The Effect of MPs on Soil Animals -- 5.9.5 The Effect of MPs on Plants -- 5.10 Ecotoxicology of Microplastic -- 5.11 Mitigation Process of Microplastics -- 5.11.1 Biological Methods -- 5.12 Conclusion and Future Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 6 Microplastics in the Air and Their Associated Health Impacts -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Microplastics in the Atmosphere -- 6.2.1 Physical Characteristics. , 6.2.2 Chemical Characteristics -- 6.2.3 Sources and Generation -- 6.2.4 Fate and Dispersion -- 6.3 Measurement of Atmospheric Microplastics -- 6.3.1 Sampling and Analysis -- 6.3.2 Atmospheric Abundance of Microplastics -- 6.4 Health Impacts of Microplastics -- 6.4.1 Routes of Exposure and Interaction with Body Tissues -- 6.4.2 Health Impacts -- 6.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 7 Plastic Marine Litter in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Sea: Current Research Trends and Management Strategies -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Analysis of Marine Litter Research Trends in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Sea Countries -- 7.3 Microplastics Abundance in the Marine Environment of the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Countries -- 7.4 Microplastics Characterization and Identification Techniques -- 7.5 Microplastics in Coastal Areas Affected by Rivers -- 7.6 Socioeconomic Impact of Plastic Marine Litter and Reduction Approaches -- 7.7 Knowledge Gaps and Recommendation for Future Research -- References -- Chapter 8 Advanced Detection Techniques for Microplastics in Different Environmental Media -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Methodology -- 8.2.1 Selection of Criteria and Search for Articles -- 8.2.2 Item Selection -- 8.3 Results -- 8.3.1 Sampling Techniques in Different Marine Environments -- 8.3.1.1 Seawater -- 8.3.1.2 Sea Sediments -- 8.3.1.3 Beaches -- 8.3.1.4 Mangroves -- 8.3.1.5 Marine Fauna -- 8.3.1.6 Marine Vegetation -- 8.3.2 Sample Processing in Laboratory -- 8.3.2.1 Water -- 8.3.2.2 Sediments -- 8.3.2.3 Marine Fauna -- 8.3.2.4 Marine Vegetation -- 8.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 9 Bio-Based and Biodegradable Plastics as Alternatives to Conventional Plastics -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Definition and Classification of Plastics. , 9.3 Current Status of Conventional Plastics and Effect on Environment -- 9.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Conventional Plastics -- 9.4.1 Advantages -- 9.4.2 Disadvantages -- 9.5 Current Status of Biodegradable Plastics and Effect on Environment -- 9.6 How Plastic Degrades -- 9.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bio-Based Plastics -- 9.8 National and International Agreements and Conventions to Control Use of Plastics -- 9.9 The Future of Plastics -- 9.10 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10 Biodegradable Plastics: New Challenges and Possibilities toward Green Sustainable Development -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 The Environmental Impact of Conventional Plastics -- 10.1.2 Classification and Types of Biopolymers -- 10.2 Biopolymers of Microbial Systems -- 10.2.1 Microbial Polyesters: Polyhydroxyalkanoates -- 10.2.2 Recombinant Protein Polymers -- 10.2.3 The Microbial Polysaccharides -- 10.2.3.1 Bacterial Cellulose -- 10.2.3.2 Xanthan -- 10.2.3.3 Dextrans: Phullan and Glucans -- 10.3 Biopolymers of Plants and Higher Organisms -- 10.3.1 Starch -- 10.3.2 Cellulose -- 10.3.3 Lignin -- 10.3.4 Chitin and Chitosan -- 10.3.5 Polylactic Acid -- 10.3.5.1 Properties of PLA -- 10.3.5.2 Improvements in PLA -- 10.3.5.3 Application -- 10.4 Factors Affecting the Rate of Degradation of Bio-plastics and Biodegradable Plastics -- 10.5 Future Aspects and Challenges for Development of Bio-based and Biodegradable Plastics -- 10.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Chapter 11 Current Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities for Plastic Recycling -- 11.1 Introduction: The Pollution Problem Involving Plastic -- 11.2 Sources, Types, and Transportation of Plastics in the Environment -- 11.2.1 Plastics Sources and Types -- 11.2.2 Plastic Transportation in Aquatic Environments -- 11.3 An Introduction to Waste Management -- 11.3.1 Plastic Waste Treatment. , 11.4 Plastic Recycling Systems -- 11.4.1 Recovery -- 11.4.2 Preparation -- 11.4.3 Primary Recycling -- 11.4.4 Energy Recovery -- 11.4.5 Mechanical Recycling -- 11.4.5.1 Sorting/Separating -- 11.4.5.2 Electrostatic Separation -- 11.4.5.3 Manual Sorting -- 11.4.5.4 Sink Float Method -- 11.4.5.5 Plastic Identification -- 11.4.5.6 Shredding -- 11.4.5.7 Agglomeration -- 11.4.5.8 Washing/Cleaning -- 11.4.6 Chemical Recycling of Solid Plastic Pollutants -- 11.4.7 Reuse and Re-stabilization -- 11.5 Latest Industry Trends and a Future Perspective -- 11.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 12 Microbial Degradation of Micro-Plastics -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Plastic Categorization Based on Biodegradability -- 12.2.1 Non-biodegradable Plastics -- 12.2.2 Biodegradable Plastics -- 12.2.3 Biosynthetic Plastics -- 12.2.4 Blended Plastics -- 12.2.5 Biocomposite Polymers -- 12.3 Microplastics Cycling into the Environment -- 12.4 Microorganisms and Interactions with Microplastics -- 12.5 Factors Affecting Biodegradation of Microplastics -- 12.6 Mechanisms of Microplastic Biodegradation -- 12.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 13 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Plastics -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Plastics -- 13.2.1 Types of Plastics -- 13.2.2 Plastic Bags -- 13.2.3 Plastic Waste -- 13.2.4 Recycling and Disposal -- 13.2.5 Indian Scenario -- 13.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) -- 13.3.1 Phases of LCA -- 13.3.1.1 Goal and Scope Definition -- 13.3.1.2 Inventory Analysis -- 13.3.1.3 Impact Assessment -- 13.3.1.4 Interpretation -- 13.3.2 Importance of LCA -- 13.3.3 LCA for Plastics -- 13.4 Plastics Sustainability by LCA -- 13.5 Discussion and Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 14 Role of Education and Society in Dealing Plastic Pollution in the Future -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Consumption -- 14.3 Global Dimension of Plastic Pollution. , 14.4 Plastic Pollution in Natural Environments.

Note: Front Cover -- Contamination of Water -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- List of contributors -- Preface -- A. Water contamination -- 1 Contamination of water resources in the mining region -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Sources of contamination -- 1.2.1 Mining area -- 1.2.1.1 Active and abandoned mines -- 1.2.1.2 Metallic and nonmetallic -- 1.2.1.3 Surface and underground mines -- 1.2.2 Mine waste -- 1.2.2.1 Tailings -- 1.2.2.2 Waste rocks -- 1.2.2.3 Slag -- 1.2.3 Mine water -- 1.3 Pathways of contamination -- 1.3.1 Contamination of surface water resources -- 1.3.2 Contamination of groundwater resources -- 1.4 Impacts of mines on vegetation and humans -- 1.4.1 Vegetation -- 1.4.2 Human health -- 1.5 Remediation methods -- 1.6 Summary -- References -- 2 Contamination of water resources in and around saline lakes -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Types of saline lakes around the world -- 2.3 Contamination of saline lakes -- 2.3.1 Aral Sea -- 2.3.2 Great Salt Lake -- 2.3.3 Lake Urmia -- 2.3.4 Sambhar Lake -- 2.3.5 Dead Sea -- 2.4 Management and conservation of lakes -- 2.5 Conclusion -- References -- 3 Contamination of groundwater by fly ash heavy metals at landfill sites -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Fly ash disposal -- 3.3 Wet disposal method -- 3.4 Dry disposal method -- 3.5 Impact of fly ash disposal on groundwater -- 3.6 Status of groundwater contamination -- 3.7 Case study -- 3.7.1 Characterization of fly ash disposed of at landfill sites and groundwater contamination by fly ash heavy metals relea... -- 3.8 Fly ash: heavy metal contaminant -- 3.9 Material method -- 3.10 Results -- 3.10.1 Dry disposal system -- 3.10.1.1 Physio-chemical analysis of dyke ash -- 3.10.1.2 Instrumental analysis -- 3.10.1.2.1 Morphology of dyke ash (pre and postanalysis) -- 3.11 Particle size analysis by dynamic light scattering analyser (pre and postmonsoon analysis). , 3.12 Fourier transform infrared analysis of dyke ash (pre and postmonsoon) -- 3.13 Mineralogy of dyke ash by x-ray diffraction (pre and postanalysis) -- 3.13.1 Wet disposal system -- 3.13.1.1 Physio-chemical analysis -- 3.13.1.2 Instrumental analysis -- 3.13.1.2.1 Morphology of ash by scanning electron microscopy -- 3.14 Particle size analysis of ash by dynamic light scattering -- 3.15 Fourier transform infrared analysis of ash -- 3.16 Mineralogy of ash by x-ray diffraction -- 3.17 Seasonal concentration of heavy metal in fly ash -- 3.18 Discussion -- 3.18.1 Disposal system of fly ash -- 3.19 Dry disposal system of fly ash -- 3.20 Wet disposal system of fly ash -- 3.21 Heavy metal analysis of pre and postmonsoon disposed ash -- 3.22 Conclusion -- References -- 4 Current scenario of heavy metal contamination in water -- 4.1 Introduction: water contamination and measure concerns -- 4.2 Types of water pollutants -- 4.2.1 Organic pollutants -- 4.2.2 Inorganic pollutants -- 4.2.3 Biological pollutants -- 4.2.4 Thermal pollutants -- 4.2.5 Radioactive pollutants -- 4.2.6 Heavy metal contamination in water -- 4.3 Standard permissible limits and sources of heavy metal pollution in water -- 4.3.1 Standard permissible limits for heavy metals in water -- 4.3.2 Sources of heavy metal contamination in water -- 4.3.2.1 Natural source -- 4.3.2.2 Anthropogenic sources -- 4.4 Heavy metal contamination in water sources: environmental and health hazards -- 4.5 Heavy metal decontamination: remediation methods and techniques -- 4.5.1 Oxidation/precipitation -- 4.5.2 Ion exchange -- 4.5.3 Electrokinetic process -- 4.5.4 Membrane filtration/reverse osmosis -- 4.5.5 Bioremediation -- 4.5.6 Adsorption method -- 4.5.6.1 Powder method -- 4.5.6.2 Template method -- 4.6 Concluding remarks and future aspects -- References. , 5 Health impacts due to fluoride contamination in water: current scenario -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Fluoride chemistry -- 5.3 Sources of fluoride in the environment -- 5.3.1 Minerals/sediment based sources -- 5.3.2 Geothermal sources -- 5.3.3 Anthropogenic resources -- 5.4 Factors responsible for the contribution of fluoride ions to groundwater resources -- 5.5 Fluoride availability in groundwater/drinking water -- 5.6 Bioavailability of fluoride -- 5.7 Effects on human health due to fluoride -- 5.8 Human health risk assessment due to fluoride -- 5.8.1 Health risk assessment tool -- 5.8.2 Categorization of risk for assessment -- 5.8.2.1 Carcinogenic risks -- 5.8.2.2 Noncarcinogenic risks -- 5.8.3 Assessment of risk involved -- 5.8.3.1 Carcinogenic risk assessment and lifelong probability -- 5.8.3.2 Assessment of noncarcinogenic risk -- 5.9 Remedial techniques to remove fluoride from water/waste water -- 5.9.1 Chemical precipitation/coagulation -- 5.9.2 Phytoremediation technique -- 5.9.3 Membrane-based separation process -- 5.9.3.1 Reverse osmosis -- 5.9.3.2 Nanofiltration -- 5.9.3.3 Electrodialysis -- 5.9.4 Ion-exchange method -- 5.9.5 Adsorption -- 5.10 Consumer behavior and use of water -- 5.11 Recommendations -- References -- 6 Contamination of water resources in industrial zones -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Water pollution and pollutants -- 6.1.2 Water scarcity and quality -- 6.1.3 Exposure of industrial contaminants into the water -- 6.2 Types of contaminants present in water resources -- 6.2.1 Organic contaminants -- 6.2.2 Thermal pollution -- 6.2.3 Heavy metals -- 6.2.4 Biological -- 6.3 Negative impacts of contaminants on human health and ecotoxicity -- 6.4 Remediation technology -- 6.4.1 Water remediation by physical and chemical technologies -- 6.4.1.1 Physical method -- 6.4.1.1.1 Pump and treat technology. , 6.4.1.1.2 Air sparging technology -- 6.4.1.1.3 Adsorption technology -- 6.4.1.1.4 Distillation technology -- 6.4.1.2 Chemical treatment technologies -- 6.4.1.2.1 Chemical precipitation method -- 6.4.1.2.2 Ion-exchange method -- 6.4.1.2.3 Carbon adsorption method -- 6.4.1.2.4 Chemical oxidation method -- 6.4.1.2.5 Surfactant increased recovery method -- 6.4.1.2.6 Permeable active barrier method -- 6.4.2 Water remediation by bioremediation and phytoremediation technologies -- 6.4.2.1 Bioremediation -- 6.4.2.2 In-situ bioremediation approach -- 6.4.2.3 Ex-situ bioremediation approach -- 6.4.2.4 Methods of bioremediation -- 6.4.2.4.1 Bioventing method -- 6.4.2.4.2 Landfarming method -- 6.4.2.4.3 Bioreactor method -- 6.4.2.4.4 Bioaugmentation method -- 6.4.2.4.5 Rhizofiltration method -- 6.4.2.4.6 Biostimulation method -- 6.4.2.5 Phytoremediation -- 6.4.2.6 Types of phytoremediation -- 6.4.2.6.1 Phytostabilization approach -- 6.4.2.6.2 Phytovolatilization approach -- 6.4.2.6.3 Phytoextraction or phytoaccumulation approach -- 6.4.2.6.4 Phytofiltration approach -- 6.4.2.6.5 Phytodegradation or phytotransformation approach -- 6.5 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Contamination of groundwater resources by pesticides -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Historical perspectives of pesticide pollution -- 7.3 The fate of pesticides in the environment -- 7.4 Initial deposition and fate of pesticides in aquatic ecosystems -- 7.5 Impacts of pesticides -- 7.6 Management practices and remedies against pesticide pollution in groundwater -- 7.7 Conclusion and future direction -- References -- 8 Current scenario of pesticide contamination in water -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Pesticides contamination in water resources -- 8.3 Emerging pesticides as water pollutants -- 8.4 Source of pesticides release in water bodies -- 8.5 Ecological and health risk assessment. , 8.6 Conclusion and future outlook -- Acknowledgement -- References -- B. Health risk assessment -- 9 Contamination of water resources with potentially toxic elements and human health risk assessment: Part 1 -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Water-a boon to mankind -- 9.2.1 Types of water available -- 9.2.2 Water quality, scarcity, and its importance -- 9.2.3 Water contaminants and its types: conventional and emerging -- 9.2.3.1 Conventional contaminants -- 9.2.3.1.1 Inorganic substance contaminants -- 9.2.3.1.2 Organic contaminants -- 9.2.3.1.3 Biological contaminants -- 9.2.3.1.4 Radiological contaminants -- 9.2.3.2 Emerging water pollutants -- 9.2.4 Different route, causes and sources -- 9.3 Impure or heavy metal contaminated drinking water -- 9.3.1 Mechanism of heavy metal toxicity -- 9.3.1.1 Arsenic toxicity -- 9.3.1.2 Cadmium toxicity -- 9.3.1.3 Chromium toxicity -- 9.3.1.4 Lead toxicity -- 9.3.1.5 Mercury toxicity -- 9.3.2 Adverse effect of heavy metals on human health -- 9.3.3 Heavy metal risk assessment: harms versus benefits -- 9.4 Remediation and mitigation of heavy metals -- 9.4.1 Microbial remediation -- 9.4.2 Bio-sorption technique -- 9.4.3 Chromatographic technique -- 9.4.4 Nanoadsorbent technique -- 9.5 Biotechnological approaches for the detection of contaminants in freshwater -- 9.5.1 Types of biosensors -- 9.5.1.1 Antibody-based biosensors -- 9.5.1.2 Enzyme-based biosensors -- 9.5.1.3 Protein-based biosensors -- 9.5.1.4 Whole cell-based biosensors -- 9.6 Miscellaneous -- 9.7 Conclusion -- References -- 10 Contamination of water resources with potentially toxic elements and human health risk assessment: Part 2 -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Natural distribution, industrial production, and applications of toxic heavy metals -- 10.2.1 Mercury -- 10.2.2 Arsenic -- 10.2.3 Lead -- 10.2.4 Cadmium -- 10.2.5 Chromium. , 10.3 Heavy metals contamination in water resources.

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