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  • HABs  (7)
  • Gambierdiscus  (3)
  • Chattonella marina  (2)
  • 1
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    Distribution, abundance and diversity of Gambierdiscus spp. from a ciguatera endemic area in Marakei, Republic of Kiribati (2014)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2014. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Harmful Algae 34 (2014): 56–68, doi:10.1016/j.hal.2014.02.007.
    Description: Ciguatera is a serious seafood poisoning syndrome caused by the consumption of ciguatoxin-contaminated finfish from tropical and subtropical regions. This study examined the community structure of ciguatera-associated dinoflagellates and the distribution pattern, taxonomy and toxicity of Gambierdiscus spp. from a high-risk area of Marakei, Republic of Kiribati. The genera Gambierdiscus, Prorocentrum, Ostreopsis, Amphidinium and Coolia were present, and generally the former three dominated the dinoflagellate assemblage. Among these three, Gambierdiscus was the most abundant dinoflagellate genus observed at three of the four sites sampled, two of which (Sites 1 and 2) were on the northern half of the island and two (Sites 3 and 4) on the southern half. The following patterns of abundance were observed among sites: (1) Average Gambierdiscus spp. abundance at the northern sites exceeded the southern sites by a factor of 19-54; and (2) Gambierdiscus spp. abundance at shallow sites (2-3 m) exceeded deeper sites (10-15 m). The distribution of Gambierdiscus spp. at Marakei corresponded with previously observed patterns of fish toxicity, with fish from southern locations being much less toxic than fish sampled north of the central channel. DNA sequencing identified three Gambierdiscus species (G. carpenteri, G. belizeanus, G. pacificus) and three previously unreported ribotypes (Gambierdiscus sp. type 4, Gambierdiscus sp. type 5, Gambierdiscus sp. type 6) in the samples; Gambierdiscus sp. type 4 may represent a Pacific clade of Gambierdiscus sp. ribotype 1. Toxicity analyses determined that Gambierdiscus sp. type 4 isolates were more toxic than the Gambierdiscus sp. type 5 and G. pacificus isolates, with toxin contents of 2.6-6.0 (mean: 4.3± 1.4), 0.010 and 0.011 fg P-CTX-1 eq cell-1, respectively. Despite low densities of Gambierdiscus spp. observed at Marakei relative to other studies in other parts of the world, the presence of low and moderately toxic populations may be sufficient to render the western coast of Marakei a high-risk area for ciguatera. The long history of toxicity along the western side of Marakei suggests that large-scale oceanographic forcings that regulate the distribution of Gambierdiscus spp. along the western side of Marakei may have remained relatively stable over that time. Chronic as well as acute exposure to ciguatoxins may therefore pose an important human health impact to the residents of Marakei.
    Description: Funding for this work was provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U01 EH000421), USFDA (F223201000060C), NOAA NOS (Cooperative Agreement NA11NOS4780060, NA11NOS4780028), National Program on Key Basic Research Project of China (973 Program, 2013CB956503), the Nonprofit Research Project for the State Oceanic Administration (China, 201005006-01), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41276110).
    Keywords: Ciguatera fish poisoning ; Ciguatoxins ; Gambierdiscus ; Ostreopsis ; HABs ; Kiribati
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Preprint
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  • 2
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    Estimated annual economic impacts from harmful algal blooms (HABs) in the United States (2005)
    Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Blooms of toxic or harmful microalgae, commonly called "red tides," represent a significant and expanding threat to human health and fisheries resources throughout the United States and the world. Ecological, aesthetic, and public health impacts include: mass mortalities of wild and farmed fish and shellfish, human intoxication and death from the consumption of contaminated shellfish or fish, alterations of marine food webs through adverse effects on larvae and other life history stages of commercial fish species, the noxious smell and appearance of algae accumulated in nearshore waters or deposited on beaches, and mass mortalities of marine mammals, seabirds, and other animals. In this report, we provide an estimate of the economic impacts of HABs in the United States from events where such impacts were measurable with a fair degree of confidence during the interval 1987-92. The total economic impact averaged $49 million per year, with public health impacts representing the largest component (45 percent). Commercial fisheries impacts were the next largest (37 percent of the total), while recreation/tourism accounted for 13 percent, and monitoring/management impacts 4 percent. These estimates are highly conservative, as many economic costs or impacts from HABs could not be estimated.
    Description: Funding was provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration under Grants No. NA46RG0470 and NA90AA-D-SG480, the National Science Foundation under Grant No. OCE-9321244, and the Johnson Endowment of the Marine Policy Center.
    Keywords: Harmful algal blooms ; HABs ; Red tides ; Economic impacts ; Brown tides ; United States
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Technical Report
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  • 3
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    Molecular characterization and morphology of Cochlodinium strangulatum, the type species of Cochlodinium, and Margalefidinium gen. nov. for C. polykrikoides and allied species (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae) (2017)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: © The Author(s), 2017. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here under a nonexclusive, irrevocable, paid-up, worldwide license granted to WHOI. It is made available for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Harmful Algae 63 (2017): 32-44, doi:10.1016/j.hal.2017.01.008.
    Description: Photosynthetic species of the dinoflagellate genus Cochlodinium such as C. polykrikoides, one of the most harmful bloom-forming dinoflagellates, have been extensively investigated. Little is known about the heterotrophic forms of Cochlodinium, such as its type species, Cochlodinium strangulatum. This is an uncommon, large (~200 μm long), solitary, and phagotrophic species, with numerous refractile bodies, a central nucleus enclosed in a distinct perinuclear capsule, and a cell surface with fine longitudinal striae and a circular apical groove. The morphology of C. polykrikoides and allied species is different from the generic type. It is a bloom-forming species with single, two or four-celled chains, small cell size (25–40 μm long) with elongated chloroplasts arranged longitudinally and in parallel, anterior nucleus, eye-spot in the anterior dorsal side, and a cell surface smooth with U-shaped apical groove. Phylogenetic analysis based on LSU rDNA sequences revealed that C. strangulatum and C. polykrikoides/C. fulvescens formed two distally related, independent lineages. Based on morphological and phylogenetic analyses, the diagnosis of Cochlodinium is emended and C. miniatum is proposed as synonym of C. strangulatum. The new genus Margalefidinium gen. nov., and new combinations for C. catenatum, C. citron, C. flavum, C. fulvescens and C. polykrikoides are proposed.
    Description: F.G. was supported by the Brazilian Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico [grant number BJT 370646/2013–14]. Support for M.L.R. and D.M.A. was provided through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, National Science Foundation [grant number OCE–1314642] and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [grant number 1–P01–ES021923–01].
    Keywords: HABs ; Harmful algal blooms ; Molecular phylogenetics ; Red tide ; Toxic Dinoflagellata ; Unarmoured dinoflagellate
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 4
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    Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication : examining linkages from selected coastal regions of the United States (2009)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © Elsevier B.V., 2008. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier B.V. for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Harmful Algae 8 (2008): 39-53, doi:10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.017.
    Description: Coastal waters of the United States (U.S.) are subject to many of the major harmful algal bloom (HAB) poisoning syndromes and impacts. These include paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) and various other HAB phenomena such as fish kills, loss of submerged vegetation, shellfish mortalities, and widespread marine mammal mortalities. Here, the occurrences of selected HABs in a selected set of regions are described in terms of their relationship to eutrophication, illustrating a range of responses. Evidence suggestive of changes in the frequency, extent or magnitude of HABs in these areas is explored in the context of the nutrient sources underlying those blooms, both natural and anthropogenic. In some regions of the U.S., the linkages between HABs and eutrophication are clear and well documented, whereas in others, information is limited, thereby highlighting important areas for further research.
    Description: Support was provided through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health (to DMA), National Science Foundation (NSF) grants OCE-9808173 and OCE-0430724 (to DMA), OCE-0234587 (to WPC), OCE04-32479 (to MLP), OCE-0138544 (to RMK), OCE-9981617 (to PMG); National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) grants P50ES012742-01 (to DMA) and P50ES012740 (to MLP); NOAA Grants NA96OP0099 (to DMA), NA16OP1450 (to VLT), NA96P00084 (to GAV and CAH), NA160C2936 and NA108H-C (to RMK), NA860P0493 and NA04NOS4780241 (to PMG), NA04NOS4780239-02 (to RMK), NA06NOS4780245 (to DWT). Support was also provided from the West Coast Center for Oceans and Human Health (to VLT and WPC), USEPA Grant CR826792-01-0 (to GAV and CAH), and the State of Florida Grant S7701617826 (to GAV and CAH).
    Keywords: Harmful algal blooms ; HABs ; Red tides ; Eutrophication ; Nutrients ; Nitrogen ; Phosphorus
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 5
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    Effects of nutrients, salinity, pH and light:dark cycle on the production of reactive oxygen species in the alga Chattonella marina (2007)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © Elsevier B.V., 2007. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier B.V. for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 346 (2007): 76-86, doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2007.03.007.
    Description: Experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of nutrients, salinity, pH and light:dark cycle on growth rate and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by Chattonella marina, a harmful algal bloom (HAB) species that often causes fish kills. Different nitrogen forms (organic-N and inorganic-N), N:P ratios, light:dark cycles and salinity significantly influenced algal growth, but not ROS production. However, iron concentration and pH significantly affected both growth and ROS production in C. marina. KCN (an inhibitor of mitochondrial respiration) and 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (an inhibitor of photosynthesis) had no significant effects on ROS production. Vitamin K3 (a plasma membrane electron shuttle) enhanced ROS production while its antagonist, dicumarol, decreased ROS production. Taken together, our results suggest that ROS production by C. marina is related to a plasma membrane enzyme system regulated by iron availability but is independent of growth, photosynthesis, availability of macronutrients, salinity and irradiance.
    Description: The work described in this paper was supported by a CERG grant from the University Grants Committee of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China to RSSW (Project No. 9040864). Support for DMA is provided by U.S. National Science Foundation grant # OCE-0136861.
    Keywords: Chattonella marina ; Reactive oxygen species ; Iron ; Nutrient ; pH ; Physical parameters ; Plasma membrane ; Redox
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 6
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    Categorizing the severity of paralytic shellfish poisoning outbreaks in the Gulf of Maine for forecasting and management (2014)
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    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2013. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 103 (2014): 277-287, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.03.027.
    Description: Development of forecasting systems for harmful algal blooms (HABs) has been a long-standing research and management goal. Significant progress has been made in the Gulf of Maine, where seasonal bloom forecasts are now being issued annually using Alexandrium fundyense cyst abundance maps and a population dynamics model developed for that organism. Thus far these forecasts have used terms such as “significant”, “moderately large” or “moderate” to convey the extent of forecasted paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) outbreaks. In this study, historical shellfish harvesting closure data along the coast of the Gulf of Maine were used to derive a series of bloom severity levels that are analogous to those used to define major storms like hurricanes or tornados. Thirty-four years of PSP-related shellfish closure data for Maine, Massachusetts and New Hampshire were collected and mapped to depict the extent of coastline closure in each year. Due to fractal considerations, different methods were explored for measuring length of coastline closed. Ultimately, a simple procedure was developed using arbitrary straight-line segments to represent specific sections of the coastline. This method was consistently applied to each year’s PSP toxicity closure map to calculate the total length of coastline closed. Maps were then clustered together statistically to yield distinct groups of years with similar characteristics. A series of categories or levels was defined (“Level 1: Limited”, “Level 2: Moderate”, and “Level 3: Extensive”) each with an associated range of expected coastline closed, which can now be used instead of vague descriptors in future forecasts. This will provide scientifically consistent and simply defined information to the public as well as resource managers who make decisions on the basis of the forecasts.
    Description: Research support provided through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, National Science Foundation (NSF) Grants OCE-0430724, and OCE-0911031; and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) Grant 1-P50-ES012742-01, the ECOHAB Grant program through NOAA Grant NA06NOS4780245, and the PCM HAB Grant program through NOAA Grant NA11NOS4780023.
    Keywords: Alexandrium fundyense ; Harmful algal blooms ; HABs ; PSP ; Forecasts
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 7
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    Asynchrony of Gambierdiscus spp. abundance and toxicity in the U.S. Virgin Islands: implications for monitoring and management of Ciguatera (2021)
    MDPI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-27
    Description: © The Author(s), 2021. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Liefer, J. D., Richlen, M. L., Smith, T. B., DeBose, J. L., Xu, Y., Anderson, D. M., & Robertson, A. Asynchrony of Gambierdiscus spp. abundance and toxicity in the U.S. Virgin Islands: implications for monitoring and management of Ciguatera. Toxins, 13(6), (2021): 413, https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13060413.
    Description: Ciguatera poisoning (CP) poses a significant threat to ecosystem services and fishery resources in coastal communities. The CP-causative ciguatoxins (CTXs) are produced by benthic dinoflagellates including Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa spp., and enter reef food webs via grazing on macroalgal substrates. In this study, we report on a 3-year monthly time series in St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands where Gambierdiscus spp. abundance and Caribbean-CTX toxicity in benthic samples were compared to key environmental factors, including temperature, salinity, nutrients, benthic cover, and physical data. We found that peak Gambierdiscus abundance occurred in summer while CTX-specific toxicity peaked in cooler months (February–May) when the mean water temperatures were approximately 26–28 °C. These trends were most evident at deeper offshore sites where macroalgal cover was highest year-round. Other environmental parameters were not correlated with the CTX variability observed over time. The asynchrony between Gambierdiscus spp. abundance and toxicity reflects potential differences in toxin cell quotas among Gambierdiscus species with concomitant variability in their abundances throughout the year. These results have significant implications for monitoring and management of benthic harmful algal blooms and highlights potential seasonal and highly-localized pulses in reef toxin loads that may be transferred to higher trophic levels.
    Description: This work was funded in part by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms Program (ECOHAB publication number 984) through the CiguaHAB project (NA11NOS4780028), and also contributes to CIGUATOX (NA17NOS4780181) granted to coauthors AR, TBS, DMA, and MLR. Additional support was provided by NSF Partnerships in International Research and Education (1743802), and the Greater Caribbean Center for Ciguatera Research (NIH 1P01ES028949-01 and NSF 1841811). Financial support of YX was from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41976155), the Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi Province (2020GXNSFDA297001).
    Keywords: Gambierdiscus ; ciguatera poisoning ; Dictyota ; ciguatoxin ; Caribbean ; dinoflagellate ; benthic algae ; algal toxin ; harmful algal bloom
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 8
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    Hydrogen peroxide is not the cause of fish kills associated with Chattonella marina : cytological and physiological evidence (2006)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: Author Posting. © The Authors, 2005. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier B. V. for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Aquatic Toxicology 72 (2005): 351-360, doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2005.01.007.
    Description: Chattonella marina, a harmful algal bloom (HAB) causative species, was used to study the mortality, physiology, and pathology of a marine stenohaline fish, goldlined seabream exposed to the toxic alga. The median lethal time (LT50) was 3 h upon exposure to 8000 cells/ml of C. marina. Significant induction of filamental chloride cells (CCs) [i.e. increases in CC fractional area and in the volume density of CCs], concomitant with significant reduction of blood osmolality, were found in C. marina treated fish. To verify whether the toxicity of C. marina was mediated through oxidative stress, a hydrogen peroxide exposure experiment was carried out and the toxicity as well as cytological and physiological changes were compared with the C. marina treatment. Hydrogen peroxide at a concentration of 500 μM H2O2, (i.e. 25 times higher than that produced by 8000 cells/ml of C. marina (20 μM H2O2)) was unable to induce similar CC alterations and osmoregulatory impairment in fish as observed in the C. marina treatment. Non-specific membrane damage such as severe loss of microvilli projections on the CC apical opening and rupture of epithelial membranes in the lamellae were observed. The LT50 was 6 h, two times longer than that with 8000 cells/ml of C. marina. Based on the cytological and physiological evidence and toxicity data, the mechanism by which C. marina kills fish appears to be very different from that caused by H2O2/ROS. Osmoregulatory distress is the major cause of fish death upon exposure to C. marina.
    Description: The work described in this paper was supported by a grant from the Research Grants Council (Project No. 9040547 CityU 1105/00M) and a grant from the University Grants Committee (Project No. AoE/P-04/04) of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China. Support for D. Anderson was also provided by the US National Science Foundation through grant no. OCE-0136861.
    Keywords: Harmful algal bloom ; HAB ; Fish kill mechanism ; Osmoregulation ; Reactive oxygen species ; Quantitative ultrastructure ; Chattonella marina
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Preprint
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  • 9
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    LSU rDNA based RFLP assays for the routine identification of Gambierdiscus species (2017)
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    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: © The Author(s), 2017. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here under a nonexclusive, irrevocable, paid-up, worldwide license granted to WHOI. It is made available for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Harmful Algae 66 (2017): 20-28, doi:10.1016/j.hal.2017.04.009.
    Description: Gambierdiscus is a genus of benthic dinoflagellates commonly associated with ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), which is generally found in tropical or sub-tropical regions around the world. Morphologically similar species within the genus can vary in toxicity; however, species identifications are difficult or sometimes impossible using light microscopy. DNA sequencing of ribosomal RNA genes (rDNA) is thus often used to identify and describe Gambierdiscus species and ribotypes, but the expense and time can be prohibitive for routine culture screening and/or large-scale monitoring programs. This study describes a restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) typing method based on analysis of the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA) that can successfully identify at least nine of the described Gambierdiscus species and two Fukuyoa species. The software programs DNAMAN 6.0 and Restriction Enzyme Picker were used to identify a set of restriction enzymes (SpeI, HpyCH4IV, and TaqαI) capable of distinguishing most of the known Gambierdiscus species for which DNA sequences were available. This assay was tested using in silico analysis and cultured isolates, and species identifications of isolates assigned by RFLP typing were confirmed by DNA sequencing. To verify the assay and assess intra-specific heterogeneity in RFLP patterns, identifications of 63 Gambierdiscus isolates comprising ten Gambierdiscus species, one ribotype, and two Fukuyoa species were confirmed using RFLP typing, and this method was subsequently employed in the routine identification of isolates collected from the Caribbean Sea. The RFLP assay presented here reduces the time and cost associated with morphological identification via scanning electron microscopy and/or DNA sequencing, and provides a phylogenetically sensitive method for routine Gambierdiscus species assignment.
    Description: Funding for this study was provided by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ECOHAB program (CiguaHAB; Cooperative Agreement NA11NOS4780060, NA11NOS4780028), the China Scholarship Council and Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41606137, 41606136), and the Guangxi Natural Science Foundation (2015GXNSFCA139003, 2016GXNSFBA380037).
    Keywords: Gambierdiscus ; Ciguatera ; RFLP ; LSU rDNA
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 10
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    Understanding interannual, decadal level variability in paralytic shellfish poisoning toxicity in the Gulf of Maine : the HAB Index (2014)
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2013. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 103 (2014): 264-276, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.09.018.
    Description: A major goal in harmful algal bloom (HAB) research has been to identify mechanisms underlying interannual variability in bloom magnitude and impact. Here the focus is on variability in Alexandrium fundyense blooms and paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxicity in Maine, USA, over 34 years (1978 – 2011). The Maine coastline was divided into two regions - eastern and western Maine, and within those two regions, three measures of PSP toxicity (the percent of stations showing detectable toxicity over the year, the cumulative amount of toxicity per station measured in all shellfish (mussel) samples during that year, and the duration of measurable toxicity) were examined for each year in the time series. These metrics were combined into a simple HAB Index that provides a single measure of annual toxin severity across each region. The three toxin metrics, as well as the HAB Index that integrates them, reveal significant variability in overall toxicity between individual years as well as long-term, decadal patterns or regimes. Based on different conceptual models of the system, we considered three trend formulations to characterize the long-term patterns in the Index – a three-phase (mean-shift) model, a linear two-phase model, and a pulse-decline model. The first represents a “regime shift” or multiple equilibria formulation as might occur with alternating periods of sustained high and low cyst abundance or favorable and unfavorable growth conditions, the second depicts a scenario of more gradual transitions in cyst abundance or growth conditions of vegetative cells, and the third characterizes a ”sawtooth” pattern in which upward shifts in toxicity are associated with major cyst recruitment events, followed by a gradual but continuous decline until the next pulse. The fitted models were compared using both residual sum of squares and Akaike’s Information Criterion. There were some differences between model fits, but none consistently gave a better fit than the others. This statistical underpinning can guide efforts to identify physical and/or biological mechanisms underlying the patterns revealed by the HAB Index. Although A. fundyense cyst survey data (limited to 9 years) do not span the entire interval of the shellfish toxicity records, this analysis leads us to hypothesize that major changes in the abundance of A. fundyense cysts may be a primary factor contributing to the decadal trends in shellfish toxicity in this region. The HAB Index approach taken here is simple but represents a novel and potentially useful tool for resource managers in many areas of the world subject to toxic HABs.
    Description: Research support provided through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, National Science Foundation (NSF) Grants OCE- 1128041 and OCE-1314642; and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) Grant 1-P50-ES021923-01, the ECOHAB Grant program through NOAA Grants NA06NOS4780245 and NA09NOS4780193, the MERHAB Grant program through NOAA Grant NA11NOS4780025, the PCMHAB Grant program through NOAA Grant NA11NOS4780023, and funding through the states of ME, NH, and MA. Funding for J.L. Martin was provided by Fisheries and Oceans Canada.
    Keywords: Alexandrium fundyense ; Harmful algal blooms ; HABs ; PSP ; HAB Index
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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