Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Objectives of the Book -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Chapter 1: Major Pollutants of Contaminated Paddy Soils -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Inorganic Ions -- 1.2.1 Metals -- 1.2.2 Heavy Metals -- 1.2.3 Metalloids -- 1.2.4 Trace Elements -- 1.2.5 Anions -- 1.3 Organic Pollutants (OPs) -- 1.3.1 Hydrocarbons -- 1.3.2 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) -- 1.3.3 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDES) -- 1.3.4 Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) -- 1.3.5 Polyhalogenated Compounds -- 1.3.6 Polychlorinated Benzo Dioxins (PCBDs) -- 1.3.7 Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans (PCDFs) -- 1.3.8 Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs) -- 1.4 Organochlorine Insecticides -- 1.5 Organochlorine Pesticides -- 1.6 Organophosphorus Insecticides (Ops) -- 1.7 Carbamate Insecticides -- 1.8 Pyrethroid Insecticides -- 1.9 Neonicotinoid -- 1.10 Phenoxy Herbicides -- References -- Chapter 2: Problems and Prospects of Cultivating Indigenous Flood and Brackish Water-Resistant Varieties of Paddy in the Conte... -- 2.1 Introduction and Literature Review -- 2.2 Case Study -- 2.2.1 The Practice -- 2.2.2 Demand for Flood-Resistant Variety -- 2.2.3 Unique Benefits and Unique Practices -- 2.2.4 Kagga in Peril -- 2.2.4.1 Poor Market Prices -- 2.2.4.2 Extreme Weather Evens -- 2.2.4.3 Lack of Government Support -- 2.3 Conclusion and Way Forward -- References -- Chapter 3: Environmental Pollution of Soil and Anthropogenic Impact of Polymetallic Hydrothermal Extractions: Case Study-Brega... -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Materials and Methods -- 3.2.1 Geographic Characterization of the Investigated Area -- 3.2.2 Generalized Geology of the Investigated Area -- 3.2.3 Samples Analysis -- 3.2.3.1 Soil Samples -- 3.2.3.2 Analytical Reagents -- 3.2.3.3 Sample Preparation -- 3.2.3.4 Instruments Used for Determining the Content of Elements -- 3.2.4 Data Processing. , 3.3 Results and Discussion -- 3.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4: Sources of Organochlorine Pesticidal Residues in the Paddy Fields Along the Ganga-Brahmaputra River Basin: Implicat... -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Topography and Rice Cultivation in Ganga-Brahmaputra River Basin -- 4.3 Review of Literature on Organochlorine Pesticide -- 4.3.1 Past Usage and Occurrence of OCPs in Ganga-Brahmaputra River Basin -- 4.3.2 Soilborne OCP Residues in the GBRB -- 4.3.2.1 Uttarakhand -- 4.3.2.2 Uttar Pradesh -- 4.3.2.3 Haryana -- 4.3.2.4 National Capital Region (NCR), New Delhi -- 4.3.2.5 West Bengal -- 4.3.2.6 Assam -- 4.3.2.7 Arunachal Pradesh -- 4.4 Atmospheric Transport -- 4.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 5: Antibiotics Pollution in the Paddy Soil Environment -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Antibiotic Environmental Pollution -- 5.2.1 Effect of Antibiotics on Bacterial Communities and Dissemination of ARG in the Environment -- 5.3 Antibiotics Uptake by Plants -- 5.4 Antibiotic Pollution in Paddy Soil -- 5.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6: Antibiotics and Resistant Genes in Paddy Soil -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Geographical Distribution -- 6.3 Typical Pedogenetic Horizons of Paddy Soils -- 6.4 Classification -- 6.5 Physical Properties -- 6.5.1 Texture -- 6.5.2 Structure -- 6.5.3 Hardness or Compaction -- 6.5.4 Water Retention Capacity -- 6.6 Merits and Demerits of Rice Cultivation -- 6.7 Crop Management -- 6.8 Soil-Borne Pathogens in Rice and Biocontrol -- 6.9 Molecular Methodology to Assess Microbial Community -- 6.10 The Microbial Community in Paddy Field Soils -- 6.10.1 Microbial Diversity -- 6.10.2 Antibiotic Resistance Genes -- 6.11 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7: Paddy Land Pollutants and Their Role in Climate Change -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Role of Synthetic N Fertilizer and Their Role in Climate Change. , 7.3 Role of Paddy Land Microbes in Climate Change -- 7.4 Effects of Biochar Amendment on Climate Change -- 7.4.1 Responses of CO2, CH4, and N2O Fluxes to Biochar -- 7.5 Effect of Organic Solid Waste in Climate Change -- References -- Chapter 8: Impact of Pollutants on Paddy Soil and Crop Quality -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Characteristics of Paddy Soils -- 8.2.1 Paddy Soil Redox Potential (Eh) -- 8.2.2 Paddy Soils pH -- 8.2.3 Nitrogen Fertilizer -- 8.2.4 Paddy Soil Rhizosphere Environment -- 8.3 Pollutants in Paddy Soils -- 8.3.1 Excess Use of Chemical Fertilizers -- 8.3.2 Lead and Cadmium in Fertilizers -- 8.3.3 Nitrogen as Pollutant -- 8.3.4 Potash as Pollutant -- 8.3.5 Pesticides in Paddy Soils -- 8.3.6 Excess Salt Water in Paddy Soils -- 8.3.7 Arsenic -- 8.3.8 Fluorine -- 8.3.9 Methane Emission -- 8.3.10 Heavy Metals -- 8.4 Management of Paddy Soils -- 8.5 Impact of Pollutants on Rice Crop -- 8.6 Remediation Techniques for Polluted Paddy Soils -- 8.6.1 Dilution/Turnover -- 8.6.2 Chemical Stabilization/Washing -- 8.6.3 Phytoremediation -- References -- Chapter 9: Paddy Soil Microbial Diversity and Enzymatic Activity in Relation to Pollution -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Influence of Heavy Metals on Paddy Soil Microbial Diversity and Enzymatic Activity -- 9.3 Heavy Metal Contamination -- 9.4 Soil Microbiomes -- 9.5 Biological Parameters -- 9.6 Environmental Issues -- 9.7 Effects of Fertilization -- 9.8 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10: Arsenic in Paddy Soils and Potential Health Risk -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Arsenic in Paddy Soils: A Threat to Sustainable Rice Cultivation in South and Southeast Asia -- 10.3 Sources of Arsenic in Paddy Soils -- 10.4 Factors Affecting Arsenic Mobility in Paddy Soils and Uptake by Plant -- 10.5 Toxicity of Arsenic -- 10.6 Potential Health Risk -- 10.6.1 Respiratory Effects -- 10.6.2 Pulmonary Effects. , 10.6.3 Cardiovascular Effect -- 10.6.4 Gastrointestinal Effect -- 10.6.5 Hematological Effect -- 10.6.6 Hepatic Effect -- 10.6.7 Renal Effects -- 10.6.8 Dermal Effects -- 10.6.9 Neurological Effect -- 10.6.10 Developmental Effects -- 10.6.11 Reproductive Effects -- 10.6.12 Immunological Effects -- 10.6.13 Genotoxic Effects -- 10.6.14 Mutagenetic Effects -- 10.6.15 Carcinogenic Effects -- 10.6.16 Diabetes Mellitus -- 10.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 11: Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Paddy Soil, Plants, and Grains (Oryza sativa L.) -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Heavy Metal Concentrations in Rice -- 11.2.1 Arsenic (As) -- 11.2.2 Lead (Pb) -- 11.2.3 Zinc (Zn) -- 11.2.4 Copper (Cu) -- 11.3 Heavy Metal Concentration in Different Plant Parts -- 11.4 Sources of Heavy Metals in Agricultural Soils -- 11.5 Discussion -- 11.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 12: Arsenic in Untreated and Treated Manure: Sources, Biotransformation, and Environmental Risk in Application on Soil... -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Treated and Untreated Manure -- 12.3 Arsenic in Untreated and Treated Manure -- 12.3.1 Arsenic Levels in Swine Manure -- 12.3.2 Arsenic Levels in Poultry Manure -- 12.4 Potential Sources and Production of Arsenic in Manure -- 12.5 Transformation of Arsenic During Treatment of Manure (Composting and Anaerobic Digestion) -- 12.6 Application of Organic Modifications to Arsenic Management -- 12.7 Environmental Risks of Arsenic Application -- 12.8 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 13: Fate of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants in Paddy Soils -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Types of Pollutants -- 13.2.1 Inorganic Pollutants -- 13.2.1.1 Sources of Inorganic Pollutants in Paddy Soils -- 13.2.2 Organic Pollutants -- 13.2.2.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) -- 13.2.2.2 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). , 13.2.2.3 Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans (PCDFs) -- 13.2.2.4 Pesticides in Paddy Soils -- 13.3 Arsenic -- 13.3.1 Arsenic Species -- 13.3.2 Redox Potential -- 13.3.3 pH -- 13.3.4 Organic Matter (OM) -- 13.3.5 Soil Texture -- 13.3.6 Arsenic Bound to Fe-Mn Oxides -- 13.4 Fate of Inorganic Pollutants in Paddy Fields -- 13.4.1 Bioavailability -- 13.4.2 Adsorption and Desorption -- 13.4.3 Biodegradation -- 13.4.4 Sorption -- 13.5 Fate of Organic Pollutants in Paddy Soils -- References -- Chapter 14: Tolerance Mechanisms of Rice to Arsenic Stress -- 14.1 Arsenic Pollution -- 14.2 Paddy Pollution Due to Arsenic -- 14.3 Dissolution of Arsenic Minerals -- 14.4 As Uptake by Rice -- 14.5 Rice Growth and Physiology Under As Stress -- 14.6 Transcriptomic Study of Rice Under As Stress -- 14.7 Remedial Measures -- References -- Chapter 15: Enzymes´ Role in Bioremediation of Contaminated Paddy Soil -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 Bioremediation of Contaminated Paddy Field Soil -- 15.3 Enzymatic Bioremediation -- 15.4 Enzymes Used in Bioremediation of Contaminated Paddy Soil -- 15.4.1 Microbial Oxidoreductase -- 15.4.2 Microbial Oxygenase -- 15.4.3 Monooxygenase -- 15.4.4 Microbial Dioxygenase -- 15.4.5 Microbial Laccases -- 15.4.6 Microbial Peroxidases -- 15.4.7 Microbial Lignin Peroxidase -- 15.4.8 Microbial Manganese Peroxidase -- 15.4.9 Microbial Versatile Peroxidase -- 15.4.10 Hydrolase -- 15.4.10.1 Microbial Lipase -- 15.4.10.2 Microbial Cellulase -- 15.4.10.3 Microbial Protease -- 15.5 Plants and Their Associated Enzymes -- 15.6 Approaches to Improve Enzymatic Bioremediation -- 15.7 Advantages of Enzymatic Bioremediation -- 15.8 Disadvantages of Enzymatic Bioremediation -- 15.9 Scope and Future Prospects of Enzymatic Bioremediation -- References -- Chapter 16: Bioremediation of Contaminated Paddy Soil -- 16.1 Background. , 16.1.1 Anoxic Environment.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Acknowledgment -- Contents -- Part I: Introduction to Plastic pollution -- Chapter 1: Emerging Issue of Microplastic in Sediments and Surface Water in South Asia: A Review of Status, Research Needs, and Data Gaps -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Microplastic Distribution in the Water Bodies of South Asia -- 1.3 Microplastics in the Sediments of South Asia -- 1.4 Abundance of Microplastics in South Asia -- 1.5 Types of Microplastics Based on Shape in South Asia -- 1.6 Sources of Microplastics in South Asia -- 1.7 Microplastic Trends Based on Polymer Type in South Asia -- 1.8 Research Gaps Found in South Asia -- 1.9 Possible Research Solution -- 1.10 Research Needs Regarding MP Quantification -- 1.11 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2: Extraction, Enumeration, and Identification Methods for Monitoring Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Data Collection -- 2.2.1 Selection of Sampling Areas and Main Parameters During the Process -- 2.2.2 Sampling for Microplastics -- 2.2.3 Contamination -- 2.2.4 Laboratory Conditions and Main Parameters -- 2.3 Microplastics Sampling Methods in Aquatic Ecosystems -- 2.3.1 Sampling Methods in Water Surface and Water Column -- 2.3.2 Sampling Methods in Sediment -- 2.4 Separation of Microplastics from Samples -- 2.4.1 Sieving -- 2.4.2 Elutriation -- 2.5 Density Separation -- 2.5.1 Flotation -- 2.5.2 Removal of Organic Matter -- 2.5.2.1 Acid and Alkaline Digestion -- 2.5.2.2 Wet Oxidation Peroxide (WPO) -- 2.5.2.3 Treatment with Fenton Reagent (Fe2 + with H2O2) -- 2.6 Filtration -- 2.7 Identification, Chemical Characterization, and Quantification -- 2.7.1 Microscopy Analysis -- 2.7.2 Instrumental Analysis of Microplastics -- 2.7.2.1 Infrared Microscopy: Transmission/ATR/Micro-Fourier Infrared Transform (μ-FTIR) Spectroscopy -- 2.7.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy. , 2.7.2.3 Thermo-analytical Methods: Pyrolysis Mass Spectrometry Gas Chromatography (Pyr-GC/MS) and Thermo-extraction Desorption Gas Chromatography (TED-GC/MS)) -- 2.8 Results and Accurate Reporting Criteria -- 2.9 Recommendations and Future Works -- References -- Chapter 3: Monitoring of Microplastic Pollution -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Microplastic Sampling -- 3.2.1 Non-discrete Sampling Instruments -- 3.2.1.1 Nets -- 3.2.1.2 Pumping Systems -- 3.2.2 Discrete Sampling Instruments -- 3.2.3 Limitations -- 3.3 Extraction of Microplastic -- 3.4 Identification of Microplastic -- 3.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman Spectroscopy -- 3.4.2 Pyr-GC MS -- 3.4.3 Remote Sensing Technology -- 3.5 Monitoring Through Marine Animals -- 3.6 Proposed Solution to Microplastic Pollution -- References -- Chapter 4: Polymer Types of Microplastic in Coastal Areas -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Polymer Composition of MPs in Coastal Ecosystems -- References -- Chapter 5: Evaluation of Different Metrics to Study Microplastics as an Environmental Forensic Tool -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Source, Sinks, and Pathways -- 5.3 Role of Metrics in Environmental Forensics -- 5.4 Water as Metrics for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool -- 5.5 Soil as a Metric for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool -- 5.6 Air as a Metric for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool -- 5.7 Forensic Techniques to Investigate Microplastic Origin -- 5.8 Microplastic Detection Applications in Different Fields -- 5.8.1 Environmental Management Systems -- 5.8.2 Agricultural and Geological Applications -- 5.8.3 Epidemiological Studies -- 5.8.4 Urban Development -- 5.8.5 Legislation -- 5.9 Conclusion -- References -- Part II: Environmental Occurrence. , Chapter 6: Atmospheric Microplastic Distribution, Fate, and Behavior in Context to Pollution -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Dynamic Nature of Plastic -- 6.3 The Behavior of Microplastics in a Terrestrial Environment -- 6.4 Terrestrial Sources of Microplastics -- 6.4.1 Indoor Sources of Microplastic -- 6.4.2 Personal Care Products -- 6.4.3 Paints -- 6.4.4 Landfill -- 6.4.5 Tire Wear -- 6.4.6 City Dust -- 6.4.7 Agricultural -- 6.4.8 Industrial -- 6.4.9 Wastewater Treatment Facility -- 6.5 Ecological Impact of Microplastics -- 6.6 Human Health Impact of Microplastic -- 6.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 7: Microplastic (MP) Pollution in the Context of Occurrence, Distribution, Composition and Concentration in Surface Waters and Sediments: A Global Overview -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Microplastic (MP) Pollution in Surface Waters -- 7.2.1 MP Occurrence and Distribution in Surface Waters -- 7.2.2 MP Composition in Surface Waters -- 7.2.3 MP Concentration in Surface Waters -- 7.3 Microplastic Pollution in the World Sediments -- 7.3.1 MP Occurrence and Distribution in Sediments -- 7.3.2 MP Composition in Sediments -- 7.3.3 MP Concentration in Sediments -- 7.4 Conclusion -- References -- Web -- Chapter 8: Microplastic Pollution in the Black Sea: An Overview of the Current Situation -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Microplastics -- 8.3 The Black Sea -- 8.4 The Current Status of Microplastic Pollution in the Black Sea -- 8.5 Abundance -- 8.6 Sampling -- 8.7 Analysing -- 8.8 Microplastics in Marine Organisms of the Black Sea -- 8.9 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9: Occurrence and Fate of Microplastics in Freshwater Resources -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Basic Source of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 9.3 Atmospheric Microplastics as a Source of Microplastic in Water -- 9.3.1 Atmospheric Microplastic Accordance. , 9.3.2 Atmospheric Microplastic Characteristics and Sources -- 9.3.3 Atmospheric Microplastic Entrance to Water -- 9.4 Microplastics in Soil as a Source of Microplastic in Water -- 9.4.1 Accordance of Microplastics in Soil -- 9.4.2 Characteristics and Sources of Microplastics in Soil -- 9.4.3 Soil's Microplastic Entrance to Water -- 9.5 Accordance of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 9.6 Characteristics of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 9.7 Health Problems of Microplastics in Water -- 9.8 Fate of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 9.9 Technologies for Microplastic Removal from Water -- 9.9.1 Microplastic Removal in Wastewater Treatment Plants -- 9.9.2 Membrane Filters for Microplastic Removal -- 9.9.3 Adsorption and Ingestion of Microplastics by Aquatic Organisms -- 9.9.4 Microplastic Removal by Coagulation -- 9.9.5 Microplastic Degradation -- 9.9.6 Controlling Microplastic Entrance to the Environment -- 9.10 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10: Occurrence of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Freshwaters -- 10.1.2 The Beginning of Microplastic Research in Freshwater -- 10.2 Microplastic Sampling and Analysis -- 10.2.1 Water and Sediment Sampling -- 10.2.2 Water and Sediment Treatment -- 10.2.3 Biota Sampling and Treatment -- 10.2.4 Chemical Characterization -- 10.3 Spatio-temporal Distribution of Microplastics in Freshwater -- 10.3.1 Spatial Occurrence of Microplastics in Water -- 10.3.2 Temporal Sampling of Microplastics in Waters -- 10.3.3 Spatial Occurrence of Microplastics in Sediment -- 10.3.4 Temporal Sampling of Microplastics in Sediment -- 10.4 Origin of Pollution -- 10.5 Impact of Microplastics to Freshwater Living Resources -- 10.5.1 Freshwater Taxa Examined by Lentic or Lotic Habitat -- 10.5.2 The Taxa Examined by Scientific Literature -- 10.5.2.1 Microorganisms -- 10.5.2.2 Invertebrates -- 10.5.2.3 Vertebrates. , 10.5.2.4 Plants -- 10.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 11: Occurrence of Microplastic Pollution in Coastal Areas -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Microplastics -- 11.2.1 Primary Microplastics -- 11.2.2 Secondary Microplastics -- 11.3 Coastal Systems -- 11.4 Microplastics in Coastal Systems -- 11.4.1 Seagrass -- 11.4.2 Microplastics in the Beach Sediments -- 11.4.3 Microplastics in Estuary Areas -- References -- Chapter 12: Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Coastal Areas -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 General Aspects of the Modeling of the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Coastal Environment -- 12.2.1 Sources and Sinks of Plastics in Coastal Areas -- 12.2.2 Key Processes in the Modeling of the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in the Coastal Environment -- 12.2.3 Type of Coastal System -- 12.2.4 Particle Properties -- 12.2.5 Fate and Transport Models in Coastal Areas -- 12.2.5.1 Eulerian Transport Models -- 12.2.5.2 Lagrangian Transport Models -- 12.2.5.3 Source-Pathway-Receptor-Consequence Models -- 12.2.5.4 Data Requirements and Tools for Numerical Simulations -- 12.3 Final Remarks -- References -- Chapter 13: Occurrence of Microplastic Pollution in Marine Water -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Microplastic -- 13.3 Types of Microplastic -- 13.3.1 Primary Microplastic -- 13.3.2 Secondary Microplastic -- 13.3.3 Nanoplastic -- 13.4 Sources -- 13.4.1 Primary Sources -- 13.4.2 Secondary Sources -- 13.4.2.1 Microplastic Dust -- 13.4.2.2 Water Treatment Plants -- 13.4.2.3 Wear and Tear from Normal Use -- 13.4.2.4 Secondary Microplastic -- 13.5 Occurrence -- 13.6 Proposed Solution -- References -- Part III: Risk Assessment and Health Impact -- Chapter 14: Microplastic Pollution and Contamination of Seafood (Including Fish, Sharks, Mussels, Oysters, Shrimps and Seaweeds): A Global Overview -- 14.1 Introduction. , 14.2 Microplastics (MPs) in Seafood (Fish, Sharks, Mussels, Oysters, Clams, Prawns, Shrimps and Seaweeds): A Global Overview.

Note: Front Cover -- Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in the Environment -- Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in the Environment: Volume I -- Copyright -- Contents -- Contributors -- Acknowledgment -- 1 - Microorganisms and antibiotic production -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Probiotics -- 1.3 Prebiotics -- 1.4 Symbiotics -- 1.5 Antibiotics -- 1.5.1 Classification of antibiotics -- 1.5.2 Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance -- 1.5.3 Enzymatic inactivation -- 1.5.4 Drug elimination -- 1.5.5 Permeability changes -- 1.6 Modifications of antimicrobial targets -- 1.7 Production of antibiotics -- 1.7.1 Natural production of antibiotics -- 1.7.2 Semisynthetic production of antibiotics -- 1.7.3 Synthetic production of antibiotics -- 1.7.4 Industrial production of antibiotics -- 1.7.5 Methods for increased production of antibiotics -- 1.8 Stability of antimicrobial agents -- 1.9 Conclusion -- References -- 2 - Antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance: temporal and global trends in the environment -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Antimicrobial resistance -- 2.2.1 Escherichia coli -- 2.2.1.1 Temporal trends -- 2.2.1.2 Global trends -- 2.2.1.3 Asymptomatic populations -- 2.2.1.4 Symptomatic populations -- 2.2.2 Klebsiella pneumoniae -- 2.2.2.1 Temporal trends -- 2.2.2.2 Global trends -- 2.2.3 Streptococcus pneumoniae -- 2.2.3.1 Temporal and global trends -- 2.2.4 Mycobacterium tuberculosis -- 2.2.4.1 Temporal trends -- 2.2.4.2 Global trends -- 2.2.5 Pseudomonas aeruginosa -- 2.2.5.1 Temporal and global trends -- 2.2.6 Staphylococcus aureus -- 2.2.6.1 Temporal trends -- 2.2.6.2 Global trends -- 2.3 Conclusion -- References -- 3 - Antibiotics' presence in hospitals and associated wastes -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 History of antibiotics -- 3.3 Emerging trends of antibiotics in hospitals -- 3.4 Prescribing pattern of antibiotics. , 3.5 Antibiotics as quality metrics -- 3.6 Measurement of antibiotic consumption -- 3.7 Grams of antimicrobial therapy -- 3.8 Cost of antimicrobial therapy -- 3.9 Antimicrobial defined daily dose -- 3.10 Antimicrobial days of therapy -- 3.11 Antibiotic stewardship program -- 3.12 Antibiotics and hospital-associated wastes -- 3.13 Conclusion -- References -- 4 - Current trends of antimicrobials used in food animals and aquaculture -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Global consumption of antimicrobial trends in food animals -- 4.3 Frequent trends of use of antimicrobials in the treatment of infectious and contagious diseases in food animals -- 4.3.1 Use of antimicrobials in pigs -- 4.3.2 Use of antimicrobials in goats and sheep -- 4.3.3 Use of antimicrobials in cattle and cows -- 4.3.4 Use of antimicrobials in horse -- 4.3.5 Use of antimicrobials in poultry -- 4.3.6 Use of antimicrobials in cats and dogs -- 4.3.7 Use of antimicrobials in rabbits -- 4.4 Aquaculture -- 4.5 Global aquaculture trends -- 4.6 Need for aquaculture -- 4.7 Legislation concerning antimicrobial use in aquaculture -- 4.8 Antimicrobial agents used in aquaculture -- 4.9 Route of antimicrobial usage in aquaculture -- 4.10 WHO list of antimicrobials used in aquaculture -- 4.11 Unregulated use of antimicrobials in aquaculture -- 4.12 Use of antimicrobials in fish -- 4.13 Use of antimicrobials in crustaceans -- 4.14 Use of antimicrobials in mollusks -- 4.15 Future perspectives -- 4.16 Conclusion -- References -- 5 - Major natural sinks for harboring microorganisms with altered antibiotic resistance versus major human contribu ... -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Biological invasion is affected by climate change -- 5.1.2 Importance of permafrost microbials among other microbes -- 5.1.3 Microorganisms in cold environment -- 5.1.4 Ancient microbes and impact of resurrected microbes. , 5.1.5 Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance -- 5.1.6 Drug resistance -- 5.1.7 Glacial ice formation plus significance -- 5.1.8 Glacial ice and the study of climate -- 5.1.9 Preservation of life in ice -- 5.1.10 Microorganisms in cold environments -- 5.1.10.1 Impact and origin of revived microbes in natural populations -- 5.1.10.2 Microbes revived in the laboratory or conserved in research facilities -- 5.1.10.3 Old microbes from in the permafrost -- 5.1.10.4 Permafrost evolutions -- 5.1.10.5 DNA evolution -- 5.2 Resurrection of ecological research avenues -- 5.2.1 Temporal adaptation of pathogen infectivity and host susceptibility -- 5.2.2 Virulence in revitalized host-pathogen interactions -- 5.3 Major man-made sources of antibiotics resistance -- 5.3.1 Pharmaceuticals -- 5.3.2 Persistence of antibiotics in natural environment -- 5.3.3 Environmental side effects -- 5.3.4 Direct environmental side effects -- 5.3.5 Indirect effects -- 5.3.6 Events to reduce the discharge of antibiotic and antibiotic-resistance genes -- 5.4 Conclusion -- References -- 6 - Dissemination of antibiotic resistance in the environment -- 6.1 Background -- 6.2 Discovery and development of antibiotics -- 6.3 Classification of antibacterial drugs -- 6.3.1 Beta-lactams and fluoroquinolones -- 6.3.2 Cephalosporins -- 6.3.3 Third-generation cephalosporins, cephamycins and carbapenems -- 6.3.4 Fluoroquinolones -- 6.4 Antibiotic resistance development -- 6.5 Causes of antibiotic resistance -- 6.5.1 Overuse -- 6.5.2 Incorrect prescription -- 6.5.3 Use in other sectors -- 6.5.4 Newer antibiotics -- 6.6 Mechanism of antibiotic resistance -- 6.6.1 Resistance mechanism against B-lactams -- 6.6.2 B-lactamases -- 6.6.3 Ambler molecular classification -- 6.6.4 Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases -- 6.6.5 ESBL diversity -- 6.6.6 TEM -- 6.6.7 SHV -- 6.6.8 CTX-M -- 6.6.9 Target site alteration. , 6.6.10 Reduced permeability -- 6.6.11 Efflux pump -- 6.6.12 Resistance mechanism against fluoroquinolones -- 6.6.13 Mutations in target -- 6.6.14 Resistance mediated by plasmid -- 6.6.15 Chromosome-mediated resistance -- 6.6.16 Antibiotic resistance consequences -- 6.7 Antibiotic-resistant genes -- 6.8 Dissemination of antibiotic-resistant genes in environment -- 6.8.1 Conjugation -- 6.8.2 Integrons -- 6.8.3 Transduction -- 6.8.4 Transformation -- 6.8.5 Pathways for dissemination of ARGs in environment -- References -- 7 - Long-range transport of antibiotics and AMR/ARGs -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Historical perspective of antibiotics -- 7.3 Invisible organisms causing diseases -- 7.4 Phylogenetic analysis of antibiotic resistance genes -- 7.5 Antibiotic resistance -- 7.6 Distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in environment -- 7.7 Antimicrobial resistance in environment -- 7.8 Need for antimicrobial environmental protection -- 7.8.1 Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance -- References -- 8 - Antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance mechanism of entry in the environment -- 8.1 General aspects of antibiotics use -- 8.1.1 Introduction to the term "antibiotic use" -- 8.1.2 Antibiotic resistance to bacteria -- 8.1.3 Correct use of antibiotics -- 8.2 General pathways of introduction of antibiotics in environment -- 8.2.1 Water/soil environment antibiotics exposure -- 8.2.2 Water/sludge environment antibiotics exposure -- 8.3 Antimicrobial resistance -- 8.3.1 Bacterial resistance mechanism and control -- 8.3.2 Critical issues -- 8.3.3 Risk assessment -- 8.4 Conclusions -- References -- 9 - Antibiotics, AMRs, and ARGs: fate in the environment -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Estimation of risk of developing antibiotic resistance -- 9.3 Environmental and human risk -- 9.4 Fate of antibiotics in soil -- 9.5 Fate of antibiotics in wastewater. , 9.6 Fate of antibiotics in plants -- 9.7 Uptake of antibiotics by plants and translocation into tissues -- 9.8 Fate of AMR/ARBs and ARGs -- 9.9 Factors responsible for the fate of ARB and ARGs -- 9.10 Antibiotic resistant genes -- 9.11 Facilitation in spread of resistant genes through integrons -- 9.12 Conclusions -- References -- 10 - On the edge of a precipice: the global emergence and dissemination of plasmid-borne mcr genes that confer resi ... -- 10.1 A brief history of colistin -- 10.2 Colistin use in animal farming practices -- 10.3 Emergence of mobile colistin resistance on the global stage -- 10.3.1 Americas -- 10.3.2 Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region -- 10.3.2.1 Algeria -- 10.3.2.2 Lebanon -- 10.3.2.3 Egypt -- 10.3.2.4 Tunisia, Morocco, and Sudan -- 10.3.2.5 The Gulf Region -- 10.3.2.6 Jordan, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Libya, and Yemen -- 10.3.3 Europe -- 10.3.3.1 Belgium -- 10.3.3.2 Poland -- 10.3.3.3 Sweden -- 10.3.3.4 Finland -- 10.3.3.5 Norway -- 10.3.3.6 Denmark -- 10.3.3.7 Spain -- 10.3.3.8 Italy -- 10.3.3.9 Germany -- 10.3.3.10 Netherlands -- 10.3.3.11 Switzerland -- 10.3.3.12 France -- 10.3.3.13 Portugal -- 10.3.3.14 United Kingdom -- 10.3.4 Africa: South Africa -- 10.3.5 Asia -- 10.3.5.1 China -- 10.3.5.2 Vietnam -- 10.3.5.3 India, Thailand, Laos and Malaysia -- 10.3.5.4 Japan, Korea, and Taiwan -- 10.3.6 Australia -- 10.4 Stepping away from the precipice: Conclusions and recommendations -- References -- 11 - Uptake mechanism of antibiotics in plants -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Genes related to antibiotic resistance developed in plant endosymbionts -- 11.3 Effects of antibiotic exposure on endosymbionts -- 11.4 Types of antibiotics in soil -- 11.4.1 New class of antibiotics -- 11.5 Consumption of antimicrobial agents from soil through animal dung -- 11.6 Mechanism of uptake of antimicrobial agents by plants. , 11.7 Animal manure, a source of antibiotics.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Abbreviations -- 1 An Introduction to Microbial Biofilm -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.1.1 Biofilm Growth and Development -- 1.1.2 Beneficial and Naturally Occurring Biofilms -- 1.1.3 The Harmful Effects of Biofilm Formation -- 1.1.4 Naturally Occurring Biofilms -- 1.1.5 Biofilms in Health and Medicine -- 1.1.6 Control of Biofilms -- 1.1.7 Biofilm and Antibiotic Resistance -- 1.1.8 The Future of Studying Biofilms -- References -- 2 Biofilms: The Good and the Bad -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Mechanism of Bacterial Biofilm Formation -- 2.2.1 The Conditioning Layer -- 2.2.2 Reversible Adhesion -- 2.2.3 Irreversible Adhesion -- 2.2.4 Micro-colony Formation and Three-Dimensional Growth -- 2.2.5 Biofilm Formation -- 2.2.6 Maturation and Dispersal -- 2.3 Applications of Biofilms -- 2.3.1 Biofilm Uses -- 2.3.2 Bioremediation -- 2.4 Oil Spills and Contaminated Groundwater -- 2.5 Microbial Leaching -- 2.6 Biofilm Reactors -- 2.7 Biofilms in Biosensors -- 2.8 Biofilm Integrated Nanofiber Display -- 2.9 The Harmful Effects of Biofilms -- 2.9.1 The Food and Dairy Industry -- 2.9.2 Aquaculture and the Sea Food Industry -- 2.9.3 The Brewing Industry -- 2.9.4 Bio-corrosion -- 2.9.5 The Medical Industry -- References -- 3 Biofilms in Human Health -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Biofilm Structure -- 3.3 Biofilm Development -- 3.3.1 Growth of Conditioning Film on Surface -- 3.3.2 Movement of Microorganisms Towards Surface -- 3.3.3 Adherence -- 3.3.4 Colonization for Development and Division of Microbe, Formation of Microcolony and Biofilms, Change in Genotype and Phenotype -- 3.3.5 Interaction of Microorganisms inside Biofilm -- 3.4 Antibiotics and Biofilms -- 3.5 Pathogenic Mechanisms -- 3.6 Biofilm and Human Diseases -- 3.6.1 Oral Cavity -- 3.6.2 Upper Airways -- 3.6.3 Lower Airways. , 3.6.4 Gastrointestinal and Urinary Tracts -- 3.6.5 Wounds -- 3.7 Main Characteristics of Biofilm Mediated Diseases -- References -- 4 The Role of Biofilm in Originating, Mediating, and Proliferating Infectious Diseases -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.1.1 Biofilm Origination and Mediation -- 4.2 Indwelling Devices Where Microbes Frequently Cause Biofilms -- 4.3 Biofilm-Mediated Infectious Diseases -- 4.3.1 Barrett's Esophagus and Gastric Cancer -- 4.3.2 Endotracheal Tube Colonization and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia -- 4.3.3 Cystic Fibrosis -- 4.3.4 Chronic Otitis Media -- 4.3.5 Dental Plaque -- 4.3.6 Urinary Tract and Catheter-Associated Infections -- 4.3.7 Skin Infections by Staphylococcus -- 4.3.8 Chronic Ulcers -- 4.3.9 Prosthetic Graft Infection -- 4.3.10 Healthcare-Associated Infections -- 4.4 Other Biofilm-Mediated Infections -- 4.5 Conclusion -- References -- 5 Modern Methods in Microscopy for the Assessment of Biofilms -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Diagnosis of Biofilm Infections -- 5.2.1 Routine Microbiological Examination -- 5.2.2 Different Microscopic Methods -- 5.3 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Molecular Methods for the Assessment of Microbial Biofilms -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Why Molecular Methods? -- 6.3 Different Methods Used to Assess Biofilm: Ergin (2017) -- 6.4 Next-Generation Sequencing Technology -- 6.4.1 Advantages of NGS -- 6.4.2 Utility of NGS in Clinical Microbiology: Deurenberg et al. (2016) -- 6.4.3 Workflow of NGS -- 6.4.4 Clinical Sample/Specimen -- 6.4.5 Nucleic Acids Sequencing -- 6.4.6 Sequence Data Analysis -- 6.4.7 Application of NGS -- 6.5 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) -- 6.5.1 Advantage of PCR -- 6.5.2 Workflow of PCR -- 6.5.3 Procedure and General Protocol -- 6.5.4 1-1.8% Agarose Gel Electrophoresis -- 6.5.5 Application of PCR -- 6.6 DNA-DNA Hybridization -- 6.6.1 Principle of DNA-DNA Hybridization. , 6.6.2 Major Disadvantages -- 6.6.3 DDH Protocol and Procedure -- 6.6.4 Application of DNA-DNA Hybridization -- 6.7 Microarray Technology -- 6.7.1 Application of Microarray -- References -- 7 Biofilm-Mediated Dental Diseases -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Oral Flora -- 7.3 Development -- 7.4 Oral Microbiota: Beneficial Functions -- 7.5 Oral Niches -- 7.5.1 Tongue and Buccal Mucosa -- 7.5.2 Tooth Surface -- 7.5.3 Gingival Crevice and Its Epithelium -- 7.5.4 Dental Appliances and Prosthetics -- 7.6 Factors Modulating Microbial Growth -- 7.6.1 Anatomic Factors -- 7.6.2 Saliva -- 7.6.3 Gingival Crevicular Fluid -- 7.6.4 Microbial Factors -- 7.6.5 Environmental Factors -- 7.6.6 Miscellaneous -- 7.7 Nutrition -- 7.7.1 Host Resources -- 7.7.2 Microbial Resources -- 7.8 Dental Plaque -- 7.9 Dental Plaque and Caries -- 7.9.1 Caries Origin Hypothesis -- 7.10 Dental Plaque, Dental Calculus, and Periodontitis -- 7.10.1 Calculus -- 7.10.2 Classification of Periodontal Disease -- 7.10.3 Etiology of Periodontal Disease -- 7.11 The Systemic Connection of Oral Biofilms -- 7.12 Approaches for Control of Dental Biofilm -- 7.12.1 Conventional Treatment -- 7.12.2 Mechanical Plaque Control -- 7.12.3 Oral Irrigators (Mandal et al. 2017) -- 7.12.4 Chemical Plaque Control -- 7.12.5 Local Delivery of Drugs -- References -- 8 Biofilm-Mediated Diseases of the Eye -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Endophthalmitis -- 8.3 Contact Lens Associated Keratitis -- 8.4 Crystalline Keratopathy -- 8.5 Dry Eye -- 8.6 Ocular Implants and Biofilms -- 8.6.1 Conjunctival Plug -- 8.6.2 Scleral Buckles -- 8.6.3 Lacrimal Intubation Devices -- 8.6.4 Orbital Implants -- 8.6.5 Other Biomaterials Used in Ophthalmology -- 8.7 Prevention and Treatment of Biofilms -- References -- 9 Biofilm-Mediated Diseases of the Ear, Nose, and Throat (ENT) -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Chronic Rhino-sinusitis. , 9.3 Otitis Media with Effusion -- 9.4 Cholesteatoma -- 9.5 Adenotonsillitis -- 9.6 Biofilms in Ear, Nose, and Throat Implants and Prostheses -- 9.7 Treatment -- 9.8 Prevention -- 9.9 Conclusion -- References -- 10 Biofilm-Mediated Diseases of the Heart and Lungs -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Biofilms Related to Endotracheal Tubes and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia -- 10.3 Biofilms in Cystic Fibrosis -- 10.4 Biofilms in Pulmonary Infections -- 10.5 Biofilms in Indwelling Vascular Catheters -- 10.6 Mechanical Heart Valve Biofilms -- 10.7 Biofilms in Infective Endocarditis -- 10.8 Biofilms in Atherosclerosis -- 10.9 Cardiovascular Implantable Electronic Devices -- 10.10 Conclusion -- References -- 11 The Role of Biofilms in Medical Devices and Implants -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Mechanism of Biofilm Formation -- 11.3 Prevention and Control of Biofilms -- 11.3.1 Cell Repellent and Non-adhesive Coatings -- 11.3.2 The Active Release of Antimicrobial Compounds and Biofilm Inhibitors -- 11.3.3 Antimicrobial Coatings with Tethered Biocides -- 11.3.4 Competitive Adherence by Benign Organisms -- 11.4 Biofilms and Healthcare-Associated Infections -- 11.4.1 Central Venous Catheters -- 11.4.2 Urinary Catheters -- 11.4.3 Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia and Endotracheal Tubes -- 11.4.4 Surgical Site Infection -- 11.4.5 Mechanical Heart Valves -- 11.4.6 Contact Lenses -- 11.4.7 Orthopedic Implants -- 11.4.8 Dental Implants -- 11.4.9 Breast Implants -- 11.5 Detection and Diagnosis of Bacterial Biofilms on Medical Devices -- 11.6 Preventive Measures for Biofilm Control and Future Perspectives -- 11.7 Conclusion -- References -- 12 Biofilm-mediated Gastrointestinal Diseases -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Esophagus -- 12.2.1 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease and Barret's Esophagus -- 12.2.2 Carcinoma of the Esophagus -- 12.3 Stomach -- 12.3.1 Helicobacter pylori Infection. , 12.4 Intestines -- 12.4.1 Foodborne Bacterial Disease and Biofilm -- 12.4.2 Clostridium Difficile -- 12.4.3 Inflammatory Bowel Disease -- 12.4.4 Irritable Bowel Syndrome -- 12.4.5 Colorectal Malignancy -- References -- 13 Biofilm-Mediated Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.1 Infections in Urinary Tract -- 13.2 Pathogenesis of Biofilm-Mediated UTIs -- 13.2.1 Role of Biofilms in Recurrent UTIs -- 13.2.2 Role of Biofilm in ABU -- 13.2.3 Role of Biofilms in Catheter-Associated Infections -- 13.3 Microbial Factors Contributing to Biofilm Formation in Urinary Tract -- 13.3.1 Escherichia coli and Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.3.2 Proteus mirabilis and Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.3.3 Klebsiella pneumoniae and Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.3.4 Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.3.5 Miscellaneous Microorganisms and Urinary Tract Infections -- 13.4 Treatment and Prevention of Biofilm-Mediated UTIs -- 13.4.1 Antimicrobial Treatment of Biofilms -- 13.4.2 Newer Strategies -- 13.5 Future Prospects -- 13.5.1 Bladder Model -- 13.5.2 Urinary Tract Model -- 13.5.3 CAUTI Model -- 13.5.4 Meatus Model -- References -- 14 Biofilm-Mediated Skin Infections -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Role of Biofilm in Skin Infection -- 14.3 Biofilm Formation and Cell-to-Cell Communication -- 14.4 Pathogenesis and Types of Skin Infection Caused by Biofilms -- 14.4.1 Rosacea -- 14.4.2 Acne Vulgaris -- 14.4.3 Atopic Dermatitis -- 14.4.4 Cellulitis, Erythema Nosodum, and Erysipelas -- 14.4.5 Onychomycosis -- 14.4.6 Furuncles and Impetigo -- 14.4.7 Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome -- 14.4.8 Miliaria -- 14.4.9 Necrotizing Fasciitis -- 14.4.10 Pseudomonas Infections of the Skin -- 14.4.11 Paronychia -- 14.4.12 Chronic Non-healing Ulcers -- 14.4.13 Other Biofilm-Related Skin Infections -- 14.5 Conclusion -- References. , 15 Approaches Towards Microbial Biofilm Disruption by Natural Bioactive Agents.