Description: It is essential to predict the impact of elevated Pco2 on marine organisms and habitats to anticipate the severity and consequences of future ocean chemistry change. Despite the importance of carry-over effects in the evolutionary history of marine organisms, few studies have considered links between life-history stages when determining how marine organisms will respond to elevated Pco2, and none have considered the link between adults and their offspring. Herein, we exposed adults of wild and selectively bred Sydney rock oysters, Saccostrea glomerata to elevated Pco2 during reproductive conditioning and measured the development, growth and survival response of their larvae. We found that elevated Pco2 had a negative impact on larvae of S. glomerata causing a reduction in growth, rate of development and survival. Exposing adults to elevated Pco2 during reproductive conditioning, however, had positive carry-over effects on larvae. Larvae spawned from adults exposed to elevated Pco2 were larger and developed faster, but displayed similar survival compared with larvae spawned from adults exposed to ambient Pco2. Furthermore, selectively bred larvae of S. glomerata were more resilient to elevated Pco2 than wild larvae. Measurement of the standard metabolic rate (SMR) of adult S. glomerata showed that at ambient Pco2, SMR is increased in selectively bred compared with wild oysters and is further increased during exposure to elevated Pco2. This study suggests that sensitive marine organisms may have the capacity to acclimate or adapt to elevated Pco2 over the next century and a change in energy turnover indicated by SMR may be a key process involved.

Description: Climate change will increase energetic demands on marine invertebrate larvae and make planktonic food more unpredictable. This study determined the impact of ocean acidification on larval energetics of the oysters Saccostrea glomerata and Crassostrea gigas. Larvae of both oysters were reared until the 9-day-old, umbonate stage under orthogonal combinations of ambient and elevated p CO 2 (340 and 856 μatm) and food was limited. Elevated p CO 2 reduced the survival, size and larval energetics, larvae of C. gigas being more resilient than S. glomerata. When larvae were fed, elevated p CO 2 reduced lipid levels across all lipid classes. When larvae were unfed elevated p CO 2 resulted in increased lipid levels and mortality. Ocean acidification and food will interact to limit larval energetics. Larvae of S. glomerata will be more impacted than C. gigas and this is of concern given their aquacultural status and ecological function.

Description: Understanding mechanisms of intraspecific variation in resilience to environmental drivers is key to predict species' adaptive potential. Recent studies show a higher CO2 resilience of Sydney rock oysters selectively bred for increased growth and disease resistance ('selected oysters') compared to the wild population. We tested whether the higher resilience of selected oysters correlates with an increased ability to compensate for CO2-induced acid-base disturbances. After 7 weeks of exposure to elevated seawater PCO2 (1100 µatm), wild oysters had a lower extracellular pH (pHe = 7.54 ± 0.02 (control) vs. 7.40 ± 0.03 (elevated PCO2)) and increased hemolymph PCO2 whereas extracellular acid-base status of selected oysters remained unaffected. However, differing pHe values between oyster types were not linked to altered metabolic costs of major ion regulators (Na+/K+-ATPase, H+-ATPase and Na+/H+-exchanger) in gill and mantle tissues. Our findings suggest that selected oysters possess an increased systemic capacity to eliminate metabolic CO2, possibly through higher and energetically more efficient filtration rates and associated gas exchange. Thus, effective filtration and CO2 resilience might be positively correlated traits in oysters.

Description: Ocean acidification is anticipated to decrease calcification and increase dissolution of shelled molluscs. Molluscs with thinner and weaker shells may be more susceptible to predation, but not all studies have measured negative responses of molluscs to elevated pCO2. Recent studies measuring the response of molluscs have found greater variability at the population level than first expected. Here we investigate the impact of acidification on the predatory whelk Morula marginalba and genetically distinct subpopulations of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Whelks and eight family lines of C. gigas were separately exposed to ambient (385 ppm) and elevated (1000 ppm) pCO2 for 6 weeks. Following this period, individuals of M. marginalba were transferred into tanks with oysters at ambient and elevated pCO2 for 17 days. The increase in shell height of the oysters was on average 63% less at elevated compared to ambient pCO2. There were differences in shell compression strength, thickness, and mass among family lines of C. gigas, with sometimes an interaction between pCO2 and family line. Against expectations, this study found increased shell strength in the prey and reduced shell strength in the predator at elevated compared to ambient pCO2. After 10 days, the whelks consumed significantly more oysters regardless of whether C. gigas had been exposed to ambient or elevated CO2, but this was not dependent on the family line and the effect was not significant after 17 days. Our study found an increase in predation after exposure of the predator to predicted near-future levels of estuarine pCO2.

Description: Ocean acidification is predicted to have severe consequences for calcifying marine organisms especially molluscs. Recent studies, however, have found that molluscs in marine environments with naturally elevated or fluctuating CO2 or with an active, high metabolic rate lifestyle may have a capacity to acclimate and be resilient to exposures of elevated environmental pCO2. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of near future concentrations of elevated pCO2 on the larval and adult stages of the mobile doughboy scallop, Mimachlamys asperrima from a subtidal and stable physio-chemical environment. It was found that fertilisation and the shell length of early larval stages of M. asperrima decreased as pCO2 increased, however, there were less pronounced effects of elevated pCO2 on the shell length of later larval stages, with high pCO2 enhancing growth in some instances. Byssal attachment and condition index of adult M. asperrima decreased with elevated pCO2, while in contrast there was no effect on standard metabolic rate or pHe. The responses of larval and adult M. asperrima to elevated pCO2 measured in this study were more moderate than responses previously reported for intertidal oysters and mussels. Even this more moderate set of responses are still likely to reduce the abundance of M. asperrima and potentially other scallop species in the world's oceans at predicted future pCO2 levels.

Description: Commercial shellfish aquaculture is vulnerable to the impacts of ocean acidification driven by increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) absorption by the ocean as well as to coastal acidification driven by land run off and rising sea level. These drivers of environmental acidification have deleterious effects on biomineralization. We investigated shell biomineralization of selectively bred and wild‐type families of the Sydney rock oyster Saccostrea glomerata in a study of oysters being farmed in estuaries at aquaculture leases differing in environmental acidification. The contrasting estuarine pH regimes enabled us to determine the mechanisms of shell growth and the vulnerability of this species to contemporary environmental acidification. Determination of the source of carbon, the mechanism of carbon uptake and use of carbon in biomineral formation are key to understanding the vulnerability of shellfish aquaculture to contemporary and future environmental acidification. We, therefore, characterized the crystallography and carbon uptake in the shells of S. glomerata, resident in habitats subjected to coastal acidification, using high‐resolution electron backscatter diffraction and carbon isotope analyses (as δ13C). We show that oyster families selectively bred for fast growth and families selected for disease resistance can alter their mechanisms of calcite crystal biomineralization, promoting resilience to acidification. The responses of S. glomerata to acidification in their estuarine habitat provide key insights into mechanisms of mollusc shell growth under future climate change conditions. Importantly, we show that selective breeding in oysters is likely to be an important global mitigation strategy for sustainable shellfish aquaculture to withstand future climate‐driven change to habitat acidification.

Description: Whether sex determination of marine organisms can be altered by ocean acidification and warming during this century remains a significant, unanswered question. Here, we show that exposure of the protandric hermaphrodite oyster, Saccostrea glomerata to ocean acidification, but not warming, alters sex determination resulting in changes in sex ratios. After just one reproductive cycle there were 16% more females than males. The rate of gametogenesis, gonad area, fecundity, shell length, extracellular pH and survival decreased in response to ocean acidification. Warming as a sole stressor slightly increased the rate of gametogenesis, gonad area and fecundity, but this increase was masked by the impact of ocean acidification at a level predicted for this century. Alterations to sex determination, sex ratios and reproductive capacity will have flow on effects to reduce larval supply and population size of oysters and potentially other marine organisms.

Description: It is essential to predict the impact of elevated PCO2 on marine organisms and habitats to anticipate the severity and consequences of future ocean chemistry change. Despite the importance of carry-over effects in the evolutionary history of marine organisms, few studies have considered links between life-history stages when determining how marine organisms will respond to elevated PCO2, and none have considered the link between adults and their offspring. Herein, we exposed adults of wild and selectively bred Sydney rock oysters, Saccostrea glomerata to elevated PCO2 during reproductive conditioning and measured the development, growth and survival response of their larvae. We found that elevated PCO2 had a negative impact on larvae of S. glomerata causing a reduction in growth, rate of development and survival. Exposing adults to elevated PCO2 during reproductive conditioning, however, had positive carry-over effects on larvae. Larvae spawned from adults exposed to elevated PCO2 were larger and developed faster, but displayed similar survival compared with larvae spawned from adults exposed to ambient PCO2. Furthermore, selectively bred larvae of S. glomerata were more resilient to elevated PCO2 than wild larvae. Measurement of the standard metabolic rate (SMR) of adult S. glomerata showed that at ambient PCO2, SMR is increased in selectively bred compared with wild oysters and is further increased during exposure to elevated PCO2. This study suggests that sensitive marine organisms may have the capacity to acclimate or adapt to elevated PCO2 over the next century and a change in energy turnover indicated by SMR may be a key process involved.