Note: Front Cover -- The Climate of the Mediterranean Region -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Foreword -- List of Contributors -- Introduction: Mediterranean Climate-Background Information -- I.1 Introduction -- I.2 Socioeconomic Characteristics and Main Vulnerabilities -- I.3 The Mediterranean Region -- I.4 Paleoclimate Reconstruction -- I.5 The Climate of the Mediterranean Region in Historical Times -- I.6 Present Seasonal Temperature and Precipitation and Their Trends -- I.7 Rain Spells and Their Characterization -- I.8 Temperature and Precipitation Extremes -- I.8.1 Temperature Extremes -- I.8.2 Precipitation Extremes -- I.9 Water Balance and Mediterranean Sea Circulation -- I.9.1 Water Balance -- I.9.2 Mediterranean Sea Circulation and Water Masses -- I.10 Present Mediterranean Sea Level -- I.11 River Runoff -- I.12 Cyclone and Main Synoptic Patterns -- I.13 Mediterranean Winds -- I.14 Wind-Generated Waves -- I.15 Aerosol Climatology over the Basin -- I.15.1 Variability -- I.15.2 Radiative Impact -- I.15.3 Impact on Precipitation -- I.16 Future Climate -- I.17 Major Open Issues -- I.17.1 Paleoclimate Reconstructions -- I.17.2 Historical Climatology -- I.17.3 Present Trends in Precipitation -- I.17.4 Water Budget -- I.17.5 Sea Level and Circulation -- I.17.6 The Role of Aerosols -- I.17.7 Climate Projections -- I.17.8 Information for Climate-Change Impacts -- I.17.9 Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Link -- 1 Paleoclimate Variability in the Mediterranean Region -- 1.1 Introduction to Paleoclimatic Reconstruction Methods -- 1.1.1 Reconstruction Approach -- 1.2 The Geological History of the Mediterranean Through the Meso-Cenozoic: From a Global Latitudinal Ocean to an Enclosed Sea -- 1.2.1 Origin of the Mediterranean -- 1.2.2 The Mediterranean and the Paratethys -- 1.2.3 Mediterranean Salinity Crisis. , The History of Mediterranean Desiccation -- The Onset of Gypsum Deposition on the Marginal Basins -- The Sea-Level Drawdown and Salt Precipitation -- The Lago Mare Phase -- 1.2.4 The Pliocene Mediterranean Flooding -- 1.2.5 Mediterranean Climate During the Pliocene -- 1.3 Sensitivity and Variability at Different Climate States -- 1.3.1 Warm Climate Intervals of the Pleistocene: The Case of the Last Interglacial -- 1.3.2 High-Frequency Variations: The Case of MIS 3 -- 1.3.3 Deglaciation(s): The Case of the Last Glacial-Interglacial Transition (LGIT) -- 1.3.4 Holocene Climate -- General North Hemispheric Climate -- The Holocene in the Mediterranean Region -- HO in the Mediterranean Region -- The 8.2 Event in the Mediterranean Region -- 1.4 Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 2 A Review of 2000 Years of Paleoclimatic Evidence in the Mediterranean -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Long Instrumental Data Series from the Mediterranean -- 2.3 Ships' Logbooks from the Mediterranean as Quasi-Instrumental Climate Information -- 2.4 Tree-Ring Information from the Mediterranean -- 2.5 Speleothem Information from the Mediterranean -- 2.6 Paleoflood and Storm Records from the Mediterranean -- 2.7 Lake Sediments from the Mediterranean -- 2.7.1 Late-Holocene Climate Records from Eastern Mediterranean Lake Sediments -- 2.7.2 The Western Mediterranean: Late-Holocene Climate Records from Iberian Lakes -- 2.8 Corals and Lower-Resolution Marine Proxies from the Mediterranean -- 2.8.1 Tropical Corals -- 2.8.2 Temperate Corals: Cladocora caespitosa -- 2.8.3 Deep-Water Corals: Desmophyllum dianthus, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata, Caryophyllia smithii -- 2.8.4 Low-Resolution Marine Proxies -- Sediment Cores -- Vermetids -- 2.9 Borehole Information from the Mediterranean -- 2.10 Vegetation, Land Use, and Fire History in Mediterranean Ecosystems. , 2.10.1 Mediterranean Vegetation Belts and Climate -- 2.10.2 Vegetation Changes and Land Use -- 2.10.3 Fire Activity -- 2.11 Pollen Data: Their Distribution and Possibilities/Challenges for Climate Reconstructions over the Mediterranean -- 2.12 Sea-Level Variations over the Last 2000 Years in the Mediterranean -- 2.13 Paleoclimate Modeling and Data Assimilation for Paleoclimatological Analysis in the Mediterranean -- 2.14 Data Assimilation with Paleo Data -- 2.15 Conclusions and Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 3 Circulation of the Mediterranean Sea and its Variability -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Changes in the Thermohaline Circulation of the Mediterranean Sea -- 3.2.1 Large-Scale Circulation Variability -- 3.2.2 Mesoscale Circulation Variability -- 3.2.3 Water-Mass Variability -- The Climatological Characteristics of Water Masses -- Interannual Variability -- Long-Term Changes -- 3.2.4 Changes in Water-Mass Formation -- The Eastern Basin -- The Western Basin -- 3.3 The Forcings of the Mediterranean Sea -- 3.3.1 The Surface Heat and Freshwater Exchanges -- Heat and Freshwater Budgets -- Climatological Mean Air-Sea Flux Fields -- Influence of Large-Scale Modes of Atmospheric Variability -- Regional Modeling/Dynamical Downscaling Perspective -- 3.3.2 The River Runoff -- 3.3.3 The Exchanges Through the Strait of Gibraltar -- 3.3.4 The Exchanges with the Black Sea -- The Region -- Interbasin Coupling and Contrasts -- Water Fluxes -- Strait Dynamics -- Climate Variability -- 3.3.5 The Exchanges Between the Eastern and the Western Mediterranean -- 3.4 Variability in the Heat and Freshwater Characteristics at Interannual to Multidecadal Timescales -- 3.5 Outlook and Future Research Priorities -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 4 Mediterranean Sea-Level Variability and Trends -- 4.1 Introduction. , 4.2 How Do We Observe Sea Levels in the Mediterranean Sea? -- 4.2.1 Tide Gauges -- 4.2.2 Satellite Measurements -- 4.2.3 Comparison Between Tide Gauge and Altimetry Data -- 4.2.4 Measurement of Land Movements -- 4.2.5 Synthesis of Sea-Level Observations into Sea-Level Indexes -- 4.3 Interannual to Interdecadal Mean Sea-Level Changes and Trends -- 4.3.1 Observed Mean Sea-Level Trends -- 4.3.2 The Atmospheric Contribution-Variability and Trends -- 4.3.3 The Steric Contribution-Variability and Trends -- 4.3.4 Mass Changes-Variability and Trends -- 4.3.5 Changes in the Oceanic Circulation -- 4.4 Interannual to Interdecadal Changes in the Seasonal Cycle -- 4.4.1 The Mean Seasonal Cycle -- 4.4.2 Changes in the Mean Seasonal Cycle -- 4.4.3 The Atmospheric Contribution to the Seasonal Cycle -- 4.4.4 The Steric Contribution to the Seasonal Cycle -- 4.4.5 The Mass Contribution to the Seasonal Cycle -- 4.4.6 The Oceanic Circulation and the Local Seasonal Cycle -- 4.5 Changes in Extreme Sea-Level Events -- 4.5.1 Extreme Sea Levels in the Mediterranean -- 4.5.2 Tidal Residuals/Storm Surges -- 4.5.3 Changes in Extreme Storm Surges -- 4.5.4 Meteotsunamis -- 4.6 Open Issues in the Study of Long-Term Sea-Level Variability -- 4.6.1 The Role of the Straits in Determining Long-Term Sea-Level Variability -- 4.6.2 Uncertainties in Estimates of Sea-Level Changes -- 4.6.3 Other Open Issues in Mediterranean Sea-Level Research -- 4.7 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 5 Climate of the Mediterranean: Synoptic Patterns, Temperature, Precipitation, Winds, and Their Extremes -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Teleconnection Patterns Influencing the MR -- 5.3 Cyclones in the MR and Links to Large-Scale Patterns -- 5.3.1 General Characteristics of Cyclones in the MR -- 5.3.2 Seasonal Variations of Cyclones -- 5.3.3 Genoa Cyclones and Mechanisms of Cyclone Development. , 5.3.4 Cyprus Cyclones and Their Related Rains -- 5.3.5 North African Cyclones -- 5.3.6 Explosive Cyclones in the Mediterranean -- 5.3.7 Links Between Cyclones and Large-Scale Patterns -- 5.3.8 Synoptic Patterns in the EM -- 5.4 Temperature and Temperature Extremes -- 5.4.1 Mean Temperature Trends and Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulation Regimes -- 5.4.2 Extreme Temperature and Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulation -- 5.5 Precipitation Extremes -- 5.6 Wind and Wind Extremes: Wind Storms, Dust Storms, and Storm Surges -- 5.6.1 Extreme Winds and Wind Storms in the Mediterranean -- 5.6.2 Local Winds and Wind Extremes -- 5.6.3 Dust Storms -- 5.6.4 Marine Storms -- 5.6.5 Ocean-Wave Variability -- 5.7 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 6 Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulation Driving Extreme Climate Events in the Mediterranean and its Related Impacts -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 HW Mechanisms and Impacts -- 6.2.1 Atmospheric Circulation and HWs -- Persistent Circulation Anomalies -- Large-Scale Forcing Mechanisms -- Trends in Temperature/Atmospheric Circulation Relationship -- 6.2.2 HWs and Their Impacts in the Eastern and Western Mediterranean -- HWs in the Eastern Mediterranean -- Deadly HWs in the Eastern Mediterranean -- The Western Mediterranean: The 2003 HW Case Study -- 6.3 Mediterranean Droughts and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation -- 6.3.1 Influence of ENSO Extremes on Drought Conditions in the Mediterranean Basin -- 6.4 Mediterranean Water Cycle -- 6.4.1 Characterizing Major External and Internal Moisture Sources Affecting the Mediterranean Basin -- Main Moisture Sources -- 6.4.2 Long-Term Mediterranean Water-Cycle Changes in Observations -- 6.5 The NAO Impact on Renewable Energy and Vegetation Dynamics -- 6.5.1 The Role of Winter NAO in Modulating Cloud Cover and Available Solar Energy in the Western Mediterranean. , 6.5.2 Assessing the Role of NAO and Climate Variability in the Vegetation Dynamics over Iberia-Wheat Production in Portugal: A Case Study.