Note: Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Anti-Adhesive Coatings: A Technique for Prevention of Bacterial Surface Fouling -- 1.1 Bacterial Surface Fouling (Biofouling) -- 1.2 Negative Effects of Biofouling by Bacteria on Practical Applications -- 1.3 Anti-Adhesive Coatings for Preventing Bacterial Surface Fouling -- 1.3.1 Hydrophilic Polymers -- 1.3.2 Zwitterionic Polymers -- 1.3.3 Super-Hydrophobic Polymers -- 1.3.4 Slippery Liquid Infused Porous Surfaces (SLIPS) -- 1.3.5 Protein and Glycoprotein-Based Coatings -- 1.4 Bifunctional Coatings With Anti-Adhesive and Antibacterial Properties -- 1.5 Concluding Remarks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 2 Lignin-Based Adhesives -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Native Lignin and Source of Technical Lignin -- 2.2.1 Native Lignin -- 2.2.2 Technical Lignins -- 2.3 Limitations of Technical Lignins -- 2.3.1 Heterogeneity of Technical Lignins -- 2.3.2 Reactivity of Technical Lignins -- 2.4 Lignin Pre-Treatment/Modification for Adhesive Application -- 2.4.1 Physical Pre-Treatment -- 2.4.2 Chemical Modification -- 2.5 Challenges and Prospects -- 2.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3 Green Adhesive for Industrial Applications -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Advanced Green Adhesives Categories- Industrial Applications -- 3.2.1 Keta Spire Poly Etherether Ketone Powder Coating -- 3.2.2 Bio-Inspired Adhesive in Robotics Field Application -- 3.2.3 Bio-Inspired Synthetic Adhesive in Space Application -- 3.2.3.1 Micro Structured Dry Adhesive Fabrication for Space Application -- 3.2.4 Natural Polymer Adhesive for Wood Panel Industry -- 3.2.5 Tannin Based Bio-Adhesive for Leather Tanning Industry -- 3.2.6 Conductive Adhesives in Microelectronics Industry -- 3.2.7 Bio-Resin Adhesive in Dental Industry -- 3.2.8 Green Adhesive in Fiberboard Industry -- 3.3 Conclusions and Future Scope. , References -- Chapter 4 Green Adhesives for Biomedical Applications -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Main Raw Materials of Green Adhesives: Structure, Composition, and Properties -- 4.2.1 Chitosan -- 4.2.2 Alginate -- 4.2.3 Lignin -- 4.2.4 Lactic Acid PLA -- 4.3 Properties Characterization of Green Adhesives for Biomedical Applications -- 4.3.1 Diffraction X-Rays (DRX) -- 4.3.2 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) -- 4.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM Images) -- 4.3.4 Wettability or Contact Angle (CA) -- 4.3.5 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) -- 4.3.6 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) -- 4.3.7 Thermal Analysis (TG/DTG/DTA and DSC Curves) -- 4.3.8 Surface Area and Porosimetry Analyzer (ASAP) -- 4.3.9 Mechanical Properties of Green Adhesives -- 4.4 Biomedical Applications of Natural Polymers -- 4.4.1 Alginate -- 4.4.1.1 Biomedical Applications of Alginate -- 4.4.2 Chitosan -- 4.4.2.1 Biomedical Applications of Chitosan -- 4.4.3 Lignin -- 4.4.3.1 Biomedical Applications of Lignin -- 4.4.4 Polylactide (PLA) -- 4.4.4.1 Biomedical Applications of PLA -- 4.5 Final Considerations -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 5 Waterborne Adhesives -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Motivation for the Use of Waterborne Adhesives -- 5.1.1.1 Sustainability and Environment Regulations -- 5.1.1.2 Circular Economy -- 5.1.1.3 Avoid Harmful Emissions -- 5.1.1.4 Development of Novel and Sustainable End Products -- 5.1.2 Environmental Effects and Mankind Toxicity Analysis -- 5.2 Performance of Waterborne Adhesives: An Overview -- 5.2.1 Waterborne Polyurethane (WBPU) Adhesives -- 5.2.1.1 Chemical Structure of Waterborne PU -- 5.2.1.2 Performances of WBPU Adhesives -- 5.2.2 Waterborne Epoxy Adhesive -- 5.3 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6 Using Polyfurfuryl Alcohol as Thermoset Adhesive/Sealant -- 6.1 Introduction. , 6.2 Furfuryl Alcohol as Adhesives -- 6.3 Polyfurfuryl Alcohol as Sealants -- 6.3.1 Effect of Different Parameters on the Curing of PFA-Based Sealants -- 6.4 Applications -- 6.5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Chapter 7 Bioadhesives -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 History of Bioadhesives -- 7.3 Classification of Bioadhesives -- 7.4 Mechanism of Bioadhesion -- 7.4.1 Mechanical Interlocking -- 7.4.2 Chain Entanglement -- 7.4.3 Intermolecular Bonding -- 7.4.4 Electrostatic Bonding -- 7.5 Testing of Bioadhesives -- 7.5.1 In Vitro Methods -- 7.5.1.1 Shear Stress Measurements -- 7.5.1.2 Peel Strength Evaluation -- 7.5.1.3 Flow Through Experiment and Plate Method -- 7.5.2 Ex Vitro Methods -- 7.5.2.1 Adhesion Weight Method -- 7.5.2.2 Fluorescent Probe Methods -- 7.5.2.3 Falling Liquid Film Method -- 7.6 Application of Bioadhesives -- 7.6.1 Bioadhesives as Drug Delivery Systems -- 7.6.2 Bioadhesives as Fibrin Sealants -- 7.6.3 Bioadhesives as Protein-Based Adhesives -- 7.6.4 Bioadhesives in Tissue Engineering -- 7.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8 Polysaccharide-Based Adhesives -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Cellulose-Derived Adhesive -- 8.2.1 Esterification -- 8.2.1.1 Cellulose Nitrate -- 8.2.1.2 Cellulose Acetate -- 8.2.1.3 Cellulose Acetate Butyrate -- 8.2.2 Etherification -- 8.2.2.1 Methyl Cellulose -- 8.2.2.2 Ethyl Cellulose -- 8.2.2.3 Carboxymethyl Cellulose -- 8.3 Starch-Derived Adhesives -- 8.3.1 Alkali Treatment -- 8.3.2 Acid Treatment -- 8.3.3 Heating -- 8.3.4 Oxidation -- 8.4 Natural Gums Derived-Adhesives -- 8.5 Fermentation-Based Adhesives -- 8.6 Enzyme Cross-Linked-Based Adhesives -- 8.7 Micro-Biopolysaccharide-Based Adhesives -- 8.8 Mechanism of Adhesion -- 8.9 Tests for Adhesion Strength -- 8.10 Applications -- 8.10.1 Biomedical Applications -- 8.10.2 Food Stuffs Applications -- 8.10.3 Pharmaceutical Applications. , 8.10.4 Agricultural Applications -- 8.10.5 Cigarette Manufacturing -- 8.10.6 Skin Cleansing Applications -- 8.11 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9 Wound Healing Adhesives -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Wound -- 9.2.1 Types of Wounds -- 9.2.1.1 Acute Wounds -- 9.2.1.2 Chronic Wounds -- 9.3 Structure and Function of the Skin -- 9.4 Mechanism of Wound Healing -- 9.5 Wound Closing Techniques -- 9.6 Wound Healing Adhesives -- 9.7 Types of Wound Healing Adhesives Based Upon Site of Application -- 9.7.1 External Use Wound Adhesives -- 9.7.1.1 Steps for Applying External Wound Healing Adhesives on Skin [30] -- 9.7.2 Internal Use Wound Adhesives -- 9.8 Types of Wound Healing Adhesives Based Upon Chemistry -- 9.8.1 Natural Wound Healing Adhesives -- 9.8.1.1 Fibrin Sealants/Fibrin-Based Tissue Adhesives -- 9.8.1.2 Albumin-Based Adhesives -- 9.8.1.3 Collagen and Gelatin-Based Wound Healing Adhesives -- 9.8.1.4 Starch -- 9.8.1.5 Chitosan -- 9.8.1.6 Dextran -- 9.8.2 Synthetic Wound Healing Adhesives -- 9.8.2.1 Cyanoacrylate -- 9.8.2.2 Poly Ethylene Glycol-Based Wound Adhesives (PEG) -- 9.8.2.3 Hydrogels -- 9.8.2.4 Polyurethane -- 9.9 Summary -- References -- Chapter 10 Green-Wood Flooring Adhesives -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Wood Flooring -- 10.2.1 Softwood Flooring -- 10.2.2 Hardwood Flooring -- 10.2.3 Engineered Wood Flooring -- 10.2.4 Laminate Flooring -- 10.2.5 Vinyl Flooring -- 10.2.6 Agricultural Residue Wood Flooring Panels -- 10.3 Recent Advances About Green Wood-Flooring Adhesives -- 10.3.1 Xylan -- 10.3.2 Modified Cassava Starch Bioadhesives -- 10.3.3 High-Efficiency Bioadhesive -- 10.3.4 Bioadhesive Made From Soy Protein and Polysaccharide -- 10.3.5 Green Cross-Linked Soy Protein Wood Flooring Adhesive -- 10.3.6 "Green" Bio-Thermoset Resins Derived From Soy Protein Isolate and Condensed Tannins. , 10.3.7 Development of Green Adhesives Using Tannins and Lignin for Fiberboard Manufacturing -- 10.3.8 Cottonseed Protein as Wood Adhesives -- 10.3.9 Chitosan as an Adhesive -- 10.3.10 PE-cg-MAH Green Wood Flooring Adhesive -- References -- Chapter 11 Synthetic Binders for Polymer Division -- List of Abbreviations -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Classification of Adhesives Based on Its Chemical Properties -- 11.2.1 Thermoset Adhesives -- 11.2.2 Thermoplastic Adhesives -- 11.2.3 Adhesive Blends -- 11.3 Adhesives Characteristics -- 11.4 Adhesives Classification Based on Its Function -- 11.4.1 Permanent Adhesives -- 11.4.2 Removable Adhesives -- 11.4.3 Repositionable Adhesives -- 11.4.4 Blended Adhesives -- 11.4.5 Anaerobic Adhesives -- 11.4.6 Aromatic Polymer Adhesives -- 11.4.7 Asphalt -- 11.4.8 Adhesives Based on Butyl Rubber -- 11.4.9 Cellulose Ester Adhesives -- 11.4.10 Adhesives Based on Cellulose Ether -- 11.4.11 Conductive Adhesives -- 11.4.12 Electrically Conductive Adhesive Materials -- 11.4.13 Thermally Conductive Adhesives -- 11.5 Resin -- 11.5.1 Unsaturated Polyester Resin -- 11.5.2 Monomers -- 11.5.2.1 Unsaturated Polyester -- 11.5.2.2 Alcohol Constituents -- 11.5.2.3 Constituents Like Anhydride and Acid -- 11.5.3 Vinyl Monomers of Unsaturated Polyester Resins -- 11.5.4 Styrenes -- 11.5.5 Acrylates and Methacrylates -- 11.5.6 Vinyl Ethers -- 11.5.7 Fillers -- 11.6 Polyurethanes -- 11.6.1 Monomers -- 11.6.1.1 Diisocyanates -- 11.6.1.2 Phosgene Route -- 11.6.1.3 Phosgene-Free Route -- 11.6.1.4 Polyols -- 11.6.1.5 Vinyl Functionalized Polyols -- 11.6.1.6 Polyols Based on Modified Polyurea -- 11.6.1.7 Polyols Based on Polyester -- 11.6.1.8 Acid and Alcohols-Based Polyesters -- 11.6.2 Rectorite Nanocomposites -- 11.6.3 Zeolite -- 11.7 Epoxy Resins -- 11.7.1 Monomers -- 11.7.1.1 Epoxides -- 11.7.1.2 Hyper Branched Polymers. , 11.7.2 Epoxide Resins Based on Liquid Crystalline Structure.

Note: Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Progress in Separators for Rechargeable Batteries -- 1.1 Separator Overview -- 1.2 Polymer Membrane -- 1.2.1 Polyolefin Separators -- 1.2.2 PVDF -- 1.2.3 PTFE -- 1.2.4 PU -- 1.2.5 PVA -- 1.2.6 Cellulose -- 1.2.7 Other Polymer -- 1.3 Non-Woven Fabric Separator -- 1.3.1 PET -- 1.3.2 PAN -- 1.3.3 PVDF -- 1.3.4 PTFE -- 1.3.5 PVA -- 1.3.6 PI -- 1.4 Polymer Electrolyte -- 1.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2 Pb Acid Batteries -- 2.1 History of Batteries -- 2.2 Primary Batteries -- 2.3 Secondary Batteries -- 2.4 Flow Batteries -- 2.4.1 All Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries (VRBs) -- 2.4.2 Zinc-Bromine Flow Cells -- 2.5 Lead-Acid Batteries -- 2.5.1 Early Applications of Lead-Acid Batteries -- 2.5.2 Comparison With Other Types of Secondary Batteries -- 2.5.3 Electrochemistry of Lead-Acid Batteries -- 2.5.4 Basic Components of Lead-Acid Cells -- 2.5.5 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries -- 2.5.6 Charging -- 2.5.7 Maintenance -- 2.5.8 Failure Modes -- List of Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 3 Flexible Batteries -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Battery Types -- 3.2.1 Lead-Acid Battery -- 3.2.2 Nickel Cadmium -- 3.2.3 Nickel/Hydrogen and Nickle/Metal Hydride -- 3.2.4 Lithium-Ion Batteries -- 3.3 Storage Mechanism -- 3.3.1 Flexible Electrode -- 3.3.2 Carbon Base Flexible Electrodes -- 3.4 Graphene Base Flexible Batteries -- 3.5 Metal Oxide-Based Flexible Batteries -- 3.6 Fiber-Shape Designed Flexible Batteries -- 3.7 Natural Fiber Base Flexible Batteries -- 3.8 Flexible Electrolytes -- 3.9 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 4 Polymer Electrolytes in Rechargeable Batteries -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Solid Electrolytes for Rechargeable Batteries -- 4.2.1 Solid Oxide Electrolytes -- 4.2.2 Sulfide Solid Electrolytes -- 4.2.3 Inorganic-Organic Hybrid Electrolytes. , 4.2.4 Solid Polymer Electrolytes in Rechargeable Batteries -- 4.3 Polymer-Based Electrolytes -- 4.4 Classification of Polymer-Based Electrolytes -- 4.4.1 Polymer-Salt Complexes -- 4.4.2 Plasticized Polymer Electrolytes -- 4.4.3 Rubbery Electrolytes -- 4.4.4 Solvent-Swollen Polymers -- 4.4.5 Polyelectrolytes -- 4.4.6 Gel Polymer Electrolytes -- 4.4.7 Composite Polymer Electrolytes (CPEs) -- 4.4.8 Ionic Liquid Incorporated Polymer/Gel Electrolytes -- 4.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects -- References -- Chapter 5 Advancement in Electrolytes for Rechargeable Batteries -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Aqueous Electrolytes -- 5.2.1 Lithium Nitrate -- 5.2.2 Saturated LiCl Electrolyte -- 5.2.3 Aqueous Sodium Salts -- 5.3 Non-Aqueous Electrolytes -- 5.4 Polymer Electrolytes -- 5.4.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes (SPE) -- 5.4.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPE) -- 5.5 Ionic Liquids Electrolytes (ILE) -- 5.6 Hybrid Electrolytes -- 5.7 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 6 Fabrication Assembly Techniques for K-Ion Batteries -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Battery and Its Types -- 6.3 Ni-Cd Batteries -- 6.4 Li-Ion Batteries -- 6.5 Advantages of Rechargeable Batteries -- 6.6 Disadvantages of Rechargeable Batteries -- 6.7 K-Ion Batteries -- 6.8 Advantages -- 6.9 Disadvantages -- 6.10 Honeycomb Structure of K-Ion Batteries -- 6.10.1 Methods/Synthesis of Potassium Tellurates -- 6.11 Negative Electrode Materials for K-Ion Batteries -- 6.12 K-Ion Batteries Based on Patterned Electrodes -- 6.13 Conclusion -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Chapter 7 Recent Advances in Ni-Fe Batteries as Electrical Energy Storage Devices -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Structure of Ni-Fe Batteries -- 7.3 Discussion on Electrochemical Parameters of Various Materials for Ni-Fe Batteries -- 7.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8 Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Batteries -- 8.1 Introduction. , 8.2 History -- 8.3 Invention of the Rechargeable Battery -- 8.4 Metal Hydrides (MH) -- 8.5 Thermodynamics and Crystal Structures of Ni-MH Battery Materials -- 8.5.1 Thermodynamics -- 8.5.2 Crystal Structures of Battery Materials -- 8.5.3 Crystal Structure of AB -- 8.5.3 Crystal Structure of AB5 and AB2 Materials -- 8.5.4 Structure of AB5 Compounds -- 8.5.5 Structure of AB2 Compounds -- 8.5.6 Substitutions of A and B Components in AB5 and AB2 -- 8.5.7 Mg-Based Alloys -- 8.5.8 Rare Earth-Mg-Ni-Based Alloys -- 8.5.9 Ti-V-Based Alloys -- 8.6 Ni-MH Batteries -- 8.7 Mechanism of Ni-MH Batteries -- 8.7.1 Battery Description -- 8.7.2 Principle -- 8.7.3 Negative Electrode -- 8.7.4 Positive Electrode -- 8.7.5 Electrolyte -- 8.7.6 Separator -- 8.8 Materials -- 8.9 Charging Nickel-Based Batteries -- 8.9.1 Guidelines for Charging -- 8.10 Performance -- 8.11 Factors Affecting Life -- 8.11.1 Exposure to Elevated Temperatures -- 8.11.2 Reversal -- 8.11.3 Extended Storage under Load -- 8.11.4 Limiting Mechanisms -- 8.12 Advantages -- 8.13 Applications -- 8.13.1 Electric Vehicles -- 8.13.2 Fuel Cell (FC) EVs -- 8.13.3 Pure EVs -- 8.13.4 Hybrid EVs -- 8.13.5 Applications in Traditional Portable Electronic Devices -- 8.13.5.1 Mobile Phones -- 8.13.5.2 Digital Cameras -- 8.14 Recent Developments and Research Work -- 8.15 Shortcomings -- References -- Chapter 9 Ni-Cd Batteries -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 History -- 9.3 Characteristics -- 9.4 Construction and Working -- 9.5 Types of NiCd Batteries -- 9.6 Memory Effect -- 9.7 Maintenance and Safety -- 9.8 Availability and Cost -- 9.9 Applications -- 9.9.1 Transportation in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles -- 9.9.2 Aircrafts -- 9.9.3 Electronic Flash Units -- 9.9.4 Cordless Applications -- 9.9.5 Motorized Equipment -- 9.9.6 Two Ways Radios -- 9.9.7 Medical Instrumentation -- 9.9.8 Toys -- 9.10 Advantages and Disadvantages. , 9.11 Recycling of NiCd Batteries -- 9.12 Comparison With Other Batteries -- 9.13 Conclusion -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Chapter 10 Ca-Ion Batteries -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Selection of Anodic and Cathodic Materials -- 10.2.1 Alloy Anodes -- 10.2.1.1 Choice of Cathodes for Calcium-Ion Batteries -- 10.2.1.2 Choice of Anodes for Calcium-Ion Batteries -- 10.3 Electrochemical Arrangement -- 10.4 Electrode Materials -- 10.5 Conclusions and Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 11 Analytical Investigations in Rechargeable Batteries -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Components of a Battery -- 11.3 Principle of Rechargeable Battery -- 11.4 Aging of Rechargeable Battery -- 11.5 Analysis Techniques Used for Rechargeable Batteries -- 11.5.1 X-Ray Based -- 11.5.2 Neutron Based -- 11.5.3 Optical Analysis Techniques -- 11.5.4 Electron Based -- 11.5.5 Vibrational Analysis Techniques -- 11.5.6 Magnetism Based -- 11.5.7 Gravimetric-Based Analysis Techniques -- 11.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 12 Remediation of Spent Rechargeable Batteries -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 A Brief History of Battery Origin -- 12.3 The Types of Batteries -- 12.3.1 Types of Primary Batteries -- 12.3.1.1 Types of Secondary Batteries -- 12.4 Recharge the Battery -- 12.5 Battery Life -- 12.6 A Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) -- 12.6.1 Advantages of Li-Ion Batteries -- 12.6.2 Disadvantages of Li-Ion Batteries -- 12.7 Impact of Batteries on Health -- 12.7.1 Protection Against Battery Disadvantages [101] -- 12.8 Mercury (Hg) -- 12.9 Remediation of Spent Rechargeable Batteries -- 12.9.1 Future and Challenges: Nanotechnology in Batteries -- 12.10 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 13 Classification, Modeling, and Requirements for Separators in Rechargeable Batteries -- Acronyms -- 13.1 Introduction and Area -- 13.2 Separators in Rechargeable Batteries. , 13.3 Classification of Separator in Rechargeable Batteries -- 13.3.1 Nonwoven Separators -- 13.3.2 Microporous Membrane Separators -- 13.3.3 Ion-Exchange Membrane Separators -- 13.3.4 Nanoporous Membrane Separators -- 13.4 Properties of Separator in Rechargeable Batteries -- 13.5 Requirements for Separator in Rechargeable Batteries -- 13.6 Modeling of Separator in Rechargeable Batteries -- 13.7 Results and Discussions -- 13.8 Future Approach -- 13.9 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 14 Research and Development and Commercialization in Rechargeable Batteries -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.1.1 Types of Rechargeable Batteries (RBs) and Challenges Faced Towards Practical Applications -- 14.1.1.1 Li-Ion Batteries (LIBs) -- 14.1.1.2 Na and K-Ion Batteries -- 14.1.1.3 Magnesium Rechargeable Batteries (MgRBs) -- 14.1.1.4 Aqueous RBs -- 14.1.1.5 Pb-Acid, Ni-Cd, and Ni-MH Batteries -- 14.1.1.6 Zinc-Ion RBs -- 14.1.1.7 Metal-Air Batteries -- 14.1.1.8 Flexible RBs -- 14.1.2 Nanotechnology Interventions in Rechargeable Batteries -- 14.2 Research and Development in Rechargeable Batteries -- 14.2.1 Zinc Rechargeable Batteries (ZnRBs) -- 14.2.2 Magnesium Rechargeable Batteries (MgRBs) -- 14.2.3 Aqueous RBs and Hybrid Aqueous RBs -- 14.2.4 Li-Based RBs -- 14.3 Commercialization Aspects of Rechargeable Batteries -- 14.4 Future Prospects of RBs -- 14.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 15 Alkaline Batteries -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.1.1 How Batteries Work -- 15.2 History -- 15.3 Advantages -- 15.4 Disadvantages -- 15.4.1 Internal Resistance -- 15.4.2 Leakage and Damages -- 15.5 Spent ARBs -- 15.6 Classification of ABs -- 15.6.1 Ni/Co Batteries -- 15.6.2 Ni/Ni ARBs -- 15.7 Application of ABs -- 15.8 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 16 Advances in "Green" Ion-Batteries Using Aqueous Electrolytes -- 16.1 Introduction. , 16.2 Monovalent Ion Aqueous Batteries.

Note: Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Transition Metal Oxides in Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Processes Utilizing Transition Metal Oxides -- 1.2.1 Photocatalysis -- 1.2.2 Photoelectrocatalysis -- 1.2.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting -- 1.3 Transition Metal Oxides in Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Processes -- 1.3.1 Photocatalysis and Photoelectrocatalysis -- 1.3.1.1 TiO2 -- 1.3.1.2 α-Fe2O3 -- 1.3.1.3 CuO/Cu2O -- 1.3.2 Thermochemical Water Splitting -- 1.3.2.1 Fe3O4/FeO Redox Pair -- 1.3.2.2 CeO2/Ce2O3 and CeO/CeO2-ä Redox Pairs -- 1.3.2.3 ZnO/Zn Redox Pair -- 1.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 2 Catalytic Conversion Involving Hydrogen from Lignin -- List of Abbreviations -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Background of Bio-Refinery and Lignin -- 2.1.2 Lignin as an Alternate Source of Energy -- 2.1.3 Lignin Isolation Process -- 2.2 Catalytic Conversion of Lignin -- 2.2.1 Lignin Reductive Depolymerization into Aromatic Monomers -- 2.2.2 Catalytic Hydrodeoxydation (HDO) of Lignin -- 2.2.3 Hydrodeoxydation (HDO) of Lignin-Derived-Bio-Oil -- Summary and Outlook -- References -- Chapter 3 Solar-Hydrogen Coupling Hybrid Systems for Green Energy -- 3.1 Concept of Green Sources and Green Storage -- 3.2 Coupling of Green to Green -- 3.3 Solar Energy-Hydrogen System -- 3.3.1 Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Production -- 3.3.1.1 PEC Materials -- 3.3.1.2 Photoelectrochemical Systems -- 3.3.2 Electrochemical Hydrogen Production -- 3.3.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Electrolysis Cell (PEMEC) -- 3.3.2.2 Alkaline Electrolysis Cell (AEC) -- 3.3.2.3 Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC) -- 3.3.3 Fuel Cell -- 3.3.4 Photovoltaic -- 3.4 Thermochemical Systems -- 3.5 Photobiological Hydrogen Production -- 3.6 Conclusion -- References. , Chapter 4 Green Sources to Green Storage on Solar-Hydrogen Coupling -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.1.1 Hybrid System -- 4.2 Concentrated Solar Thermal H2 Production -- 4.3 Thermochemical Aqua Splitting Technology for Solar-H2 Generation -- 4.4 Solar to Hydrogen Through Decarbonization of Fossil Fuels -- 4.4.1 Solar Cracking -- 4.5 Solar Thermal-Based Hydrogen Generation Through Electrolysis -- 4.6 Photovoltaics-Based Hydrogen Production -- 4.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 5 Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Parameters to Evaluate Efficient HER Catalysts -- 5.2.1 Overpotential (o.p) -- 5.2.2 Tafel Plot -- 5.2.3 Stability -- 5.2.4 Faradaic Efficiency and Turnover Frequency -- 5.2.5 Hydrogen Bonding Energy (HBE) -- 5.3 Categories of HER Catalysts -- 5.3.1 Noble Metal-Based Catalysts -- 5.3.2 Non-Noble Metal-Based Catalysts -- 5.3.3 Metal-Free 2D Nanomaterials -- 5.3.4 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides -- 5.3.5 Transition Metal Oxides and Hydroxides -- 5.3.6 Transition Metal Phosphides -- 5.3.7 MXenes (Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides) -- Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 6 Recent Progress on Metal Catalysts for Electrochemical Hydrogen Evolution -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Type of Water Electrolysis Technologies -- 6.1.1.1 Alkaline Electrolysis (AE) -- 6.1.1.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis (PEME) -- 6.1.1.3 Solid Oxide Electrolysis (SOE) -- 6.2 Mechanism of Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) -- 6.2.1 Performance Evaluation of Catalyst -- 6.3 Various Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) -- 6.3.1 Noble Metal Catalysts for HER -- 6.3.1.1 Platinum-Based Catalysts -- 6.3.1.2 Palladium Based Catalysts -- 6.3.1.3 Ruthenium Based Catalysts -- 6.3.2 Non-Noble Metal Catalysts -- 6.3.2.1 Transition Metal Phosphides (TMP) -- 6.3.2.2 Transition Metal Chalcogenides. , 6.3.2.3 Transition Metal Carbides (TMC) -- 6.4 Conclusion and Future Aspects -- References -- Chapter 7 Dark Fermentation and Principal Routes to Produce Hydrogen -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Biohydrogen Production from Organic Waste -- 7.2.1 Crude Glycerol -- 7.2.1.1 Dark Fermentation of Crude Glycerol to Biohydrogen and Bio Products -- 7.2.2 Dairy Waste -- 7.2.2.1 Dark Fermentation of Dairy Waste to Biohydrogen and Bioproducts -- 7.2.3 Fruit Waste -- 7.2.3.1 Dark Fermentation of Fruit Waste to Hydrogen and Bioproducts -- 7.3 Anaerobic Systems -- 7.3.1 Continuous Multiple Tube Reactor -- 7.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 8 Catalysts for Electrochemical Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Water Splitting and Their Products -- 8.3 Different Methods Used for Water Splitting -- 8.3.1 Setup for Water Splitting Systems at a Basic Level -- 8.3.2 Photocatalysis -- 8.3.3 Electrolysis -- 8.4 Principles of PEC and Photocatalytic H2 Generation -- 8.5 Electrochemical Process for Water Splitting Application -- 8.5.1 Water Splitting Through Electrochemistry -- 8.6 Different Materials Used in Water Splitting -- 8.6.1 Water Oxidation (OER) Materials -- 8.6.2 Developing Materials for Hydrogen Synthesis -- 8.6.3 Material Stability for Water Splitting -- 8.7 Mechanism of Electrochemical Catalysis in Water Splitting and Hydrogen Production -- 8.7.1 Electrochemical Water Splitting with Cheap Metal-Based Catalysts -- 8.7.2 Catalysts with Only One Atom -- 8.7.3 Electrochemical Water Splitting Using Low-Cost Metal-Free Catalysts -- 8.8 Water Splitting and Hydrogen Production Materials Used in Electrochemical Catalysis -- 8.8.1 Metal and Alloys -- 8.8.2 Metal Oxides/Hydroxides and Chalogenides -- 8.8.3 Metal Carbides, Borides, Nitrides, and Phosphides. , 8.9 Uses of Hydrogen Produced from Water Splitting -- 8.9.1 Water Splitting Generates Hydrogen Energy -- 8.9.2 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Water Splitting -- 8.9.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting -- 8.9.4 Biological Water Splitting -- 8.9.5 Fermentation -- 8.9.6 Biomass and Waste Conversions -- 8.9.7 Solar Thermal Water Splitting -- 8.9.8 Renewable Electrolysis -- 8.9.9 Hydrogen Dispenser Hose Reliability -- 8.10 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9 Challenges and Mitigation Strategies Related to Biohydrogen Production -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Limitation and Mitigation Approaches of Biohydrogen Production -- 9.2.1 Physical Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches -- 9.2.1.1 Operating Temperature Issue and Its Control -- 9.2.1.2 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Optimization -- 9.2.1.3 High Hydrogen Partial Pressure - Implication and Overcoming the Issue -- 9.2.1.4 Membrane Fouling Issues and Solutions -- 9.2.2 Biological Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches -- 9.2.2.1 Start-Up Issue and Improvement Through Bioaugmentation -- 9.2.2.2 Biomass Washout Issue and Solution Through Cell Immobilization -- 9.2.3 Chemical Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches -- 9.2.3.1 pH Variation and Its Regulation -- 9.2.3.2 Limiting Nutrient Loading and Optimization -- 9.2.3.3 Inhibitor Secretion and Its Control -- 9.2.3.4 Byproduct Formation and Its Exploitation -- 9.2.4 Economic Issues and Ways to Optimize Cost -- 9.3 Conclusion and Future Direction -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 10 Continuous Production of Clean Hydrogen from Wastewater by Microbial Usage -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Wastewater for Biohydrogen Production -- 10.3 Photofermentation -- 10.3.1 Continuous Photofermentation -- 10.3.2 Factors Affecting Photofermentation Hydrogen Production -- 10.3.2.1 Inoculum Condition and Substrate Concentration -- 10.3.2.2 Carbon and Nitrogen Source. , 10.3.2.3 Temperature -- 10.3.2.4 pH -- 10.3.2.5 Light Intensity -- 10.3.2.6 Immobilization -- 10.4 Dark Fermentation -- 10.4.1 Continuous Dark Fermentation -- 10.4.2 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Production in Continuous Dark Fermentation -- 10.4.2.1 Start-Up Time -- 10.4.2.2 Organic Loading Rate -- 10.4.2.3 Hydraulic Retention Time -- 10.4.2.4 Temperature -- 10.4.2.5 pH -- 10.4.2.6 Immobilization -- 10.5 Microbial Electrolysis Cell -- 10.5.1 Mechanism of Microbial Electrolysis Cell -- 10.5.2 Wastewater Treatment and Hydrogen Production -- 10.5.3 Factors Affecting Microbial Electrolysis Cell Performance -- 10.5.3.1 Inoculum -- 10.5.3.2 pH -- 10.5.3.3 Temperature -- 10.5.3.4 Hydraulic Retention Time -- 10.5.3.5 Applied Voltage -- 10.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 11 Conversion Techniques for Hydrogen Production and Recovery Using Membrane Separation -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Conversion Technique for Hydrogen Production -- 11.2.1 Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation via Particulate System -- 11.2.2 Photoelectrochemical Cell (PEC) -- 11.2.3 Photovoltaic-Photoelectrochemical Cell (PV-PEC) -- 11.2.4 Electrolysis -- 11.3 Hydrogen Recovery Using Membrane Separation (H2/O2 Membrane Separation) -- 11.3.1 Polymeric Membranes -- 11.3.2 Porous Membranes -- 11.3.3 Dense Metal Membranes -- 11.3.4 Ion-Conductive Membranes -- 11.4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 12 Geothermal Energy-Driven Hydrogen Production Systems -- Abbreviations -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Hydrogen - A Green Fuel and an Energy Carrier -- 12.3 Production of Hydrogen -- 12.3.1 Fossil Fuel-Based -- 12.3.2 Non-Fossil Fuel-Based -- 12.4 Geothermal Energy -- 12.4.1 Introductory View -- 12.4.2 Types and Occurrences -- 12.5 Hydrogen Production From Geothermal Energy -- 12.5.1 Hydrogen Production Systems -- 12.5.2 Working Fluids. , 12.5.3 Assimilation of Solar and Geothermal Energy.

Note: Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 2D Metal-Organic Frameworks -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Synthesis Approaches -- 1.2.1 Selection of Synthetic Raw Materials -- 1.2.2 Solvent Volatility Method -- 1.2.3 Diffusion Method -- 1.2.3.1 Gas Phase Diffusion -- 1.2.3.2 Liquid Phase Diffusion -- 1.2.4 Sol-Gel Method -- 1.2.5 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Synthesis Method -- 1.2.6 Stripping Method -- 1.2.7 Microwave Synthesis Method -- 1.2.8 Self-Assembly -- 1.2.9 Special Interface Synthesis Method -- 1.2.10 Surfactant-Assisted Synthesis Method -- 1.2.11 Ultrasonic Synthesis -- 1.3 Structures, Properties, and Applications -- 1.3.1 Structure and Properties of MOFs -- 1.3.2 Application in Biomedicine -- 1.3.3 Application in Gas Storage -- 1.3.4 Application in Sensors -- 1.3.5 Application in Chemical Separation -- 1.3.6 Application in Catalysis -- 1.3.7 Application in Gas Adsorption -- 1.4 Summary and Outlook -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 2 2D Black Phosphorus -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 The Research on Black Phosphorus -- 2.2.1 The Structure and Properties -- 2.2.1.1 The Structure of Black Phosphorus -- 2.2.1.2 The Properties of Black Phosphorus -- 2.2.2 Preparation Methods -- 2.2.2.1 Mechanical Exfoliation -- 2.2.2.2 Liquid-Phase Exfoliation -- 2.2.3 Antioxidant -- 2.2.3.1 Degradation Mechanism -- 2.2.3.2 Adding Protective Layer -- 2.2.3.3 Chemical Modification -- 2.2.3.4 Doping -- 2.3 Applications of Black Phosphorus -- 2.3.1 Electronic and Optoelectronic -- 2.3.1.1 Field-Effect Transistors -- 2.3.1.2 Photodetector -- 2.3.2 Energy Storage and Conversion -- 2.3.2.1 Catalysis -- 2.3.2.2 Batteries -- 2.3.2.3 Supercapacitor -- 2.3.3 Biomedical -- 2.4 Conclusion and Outlook -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 3 2D Metal Carbides -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Synthesis Approaches -- 3.2.1 Ti3C2 Synthesis. , 3.2.2 V2C Synthesis -- 3.2.3 Ti2C Synthesis -- 3.2.4 Mo2C Synthesis -- 3.3 Structures, Properties, and Applications -- 3.3.1 Structures and Properties of 2D Metal Carbides -- 3.3.1.1 Structures and Properties of Ti3C2 -- 3.3.1.2 Structural Properties of Ti2C -- 3.3.1.3 Structural Properties of Mo2C -- 3.3.1.4 Structural Properties of V2C -- 3.3.2 Carbide Materials in Energy Storage Applications -- 3.3.2.1 Ti3C2 -- 3.3.2.2 Ti2C -- 3.3.2.3 V2C -- 3.3.2.4 Mo2C -- 3.3.3 Metal Carbide Materials in Catalysis Applications -- 3.3.3.1 Ti3C2 -- 3.3.3.2 V2C -- 3.3.3.3 Mo2C -- 3.3.4 Metal Carbide Materials in Environmental Management Applications -- 3.3.4.1 Ti3C2 in Environmental Management Applications -- 3.3.4.2 Ti2C in Environmental Management Applications -- 3.3.4.3 V2C in Environmental Management Applications -- 3.3.4.4 Mo2C in Environmental Management Applications -- 3.3.5 Carbide Materials in Biomedicine Applications -- 3.3.5.1 Ti3C2 in Biomedicine Applications -- 3.3.5.2 Ti2C in Biomedicine Applications -- 3.3.5.3 V2C in Biomedicine Applications -- 3.3.5.4 Mo2C in Biomedicine Applications -- 3.3.6 Carbide Materials in Gas Sensing Applications -- 3.3.6.1 Ti3C2 in Gas Sensing Applications -- 3.3.6.2 Ti2C in Gas Sensing Applications -- 3.3.6.3 V2C in Gas Sensing Applications -- 3.3.6.4 Mo2C in Gas Sensing Applications -- 3.4 Summary and Outlook -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 4 2D Carbon Materials as Photocatalysts -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Carbon Nanostructured-Based Materials -- 4.2.1 Forms of Carbon -- 4.2.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanostructured-Based Materials -- 4.3 Photo-Degradation of Organic Pollutants -- 4.3.1 Graphene, Graphene Oxide, Graphene Nitride (g-C3N4) -- 4.3.1.1 Graphene-Based Materials -- 4.3.1.2 Graphene Nitride (g-C3N4) -- 4.3.2 Carbon Dots (CDs) -- 4.3.3 Carbon Spheres (CSs). , 4.4 Carbon-Based Materials for Hydrogen Production -- 4.5 Carbon-Based Materials for CO2 Reduction -- References -- Chapter 5 Sensitivity Analysis of Surface Plasmon Resonance Biosensor Based on Heterostructure of 2D BlueP/MoS2 and MXene -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Proposed SPR Sensor, Design Considerations, and Modeling -- 5.2.1 SPR Sensor and Its Sensing Principle -- 5.2.2 Design Consideration -- 5.2.2.1 Layer 1: Prism for Light Coupling -- 5.2.2.2 Layer 2: Metal Layer -- 5.2.2.3 Layer 3: BlueP/MoS2 Layer -- 5.2.2.4 Layer 4: MXene (Ti3C2Tx) Layer as BRE for Biosensing -- 5.2.2.5 Layer 5: Sensing Medium (RI-1.33-1.335) -- 5.2.3 Proposed Sensor Modeling -- 5.3 Results Discussion -- 5.3.1 Role of Monolayer BlueP/MoS2 and MXene (Ti3C2Tx) and Its Comparison With Conventional SPR -- 5.3.2 Influence of Varying Heterostructure Layers for Proposed Design -- 5.3.3 Effect of Changing Prism Material and Metal on Performance of Proposed Design -- 5.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 6 2D Perovskite Materials and Their Device Applications -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Structure -- 6.2.1 Crystal Structure -- 6.2.2 Electronic Structure of 2D Perovskites -- 6.2.3 Structure of Photovoltaic Cell -- 6.3 Discussion and Applications -- 6.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 7 Introduction and Significant Parameters for Layered Materials -- 7.1 Graphene -- 7.2 Phosphorene -- orthorhombic rhombohedral Simple cubic -- semiconductor semimetal metal -- 7.3 Silicene -- 7.4 ZnO -- 7.5 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDCs) -- 7.6 Germanene and Stanene -- 7.7 Heterostructures -- References -- Chapter 8 Increment in Photocatalytic Activity of g-C3N4 Coupled Sulphides and Oxides for Environmental Remediation -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 GCN Coupled Metal Sulphide Heterojunctions for Environment Remediation -- 8.2.1 GCN and MoS2-Based Photocatalysts. , 8.2.2 GCN and CdS-Based Heterojunctions -- 8.2.3 Some Other GCN Coupled Metal Sulphide Photocatalysts -- 8.3 GCN Coupled Metal Oxide Heterojunctions for Environment Remediation -- 8.3.1 GCN and MoO3-Based Heterojunctions -- 8.3.2 GCN and Fe2O3-Based Heterojunctions -- 8.3.3 Some Other GCN Coupled Metal Oxide Photocatalysts -- 8.4 Conclusions and Outlook -- References -- Chapter 9 2D Zeolites -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.1.1 What is 2D Zeolite? -- 9.1.2 Advancement in Zeolites to 2D Zeolite -- 9.2 Synthetic Method -- 9.2.1 Bottom-Up Method -- 9.2.2 Top-Down Method -- 9.2.3 Support-Assisted Method -- 9.2.4 Post-Synthesis Modification of 2D Zeolites -- 9.3 Properties -- 9.4 Applications -- 9.4.1 Petro-Chemistry -- 9.4.2 Biomass Conversion -- 9.4.2.1 Pyrolysis of Solid Biomass -- 9.4.2.2 Condensation Reactions -- 9.4.2.3 Isomerization -- 9.4.2.4 Dehydration Reactions -- 9.4.3 Oxidation Reactions -- 9.4.4 Fine Chemical Synthesis -- 9.4.5 Organometallics -- 9.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 10 2D Hollow Nanomaterials -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Structural Aspects of HNMs -- 10.3 Synthetic Approaches -- 10.3.1 Template-Based Strategies -- 10.3.1.1 Hard Templating -- 10.3.1.2 Soft Templating -- 10.3.2 Self-Templating Strategies -- 10.3.2.1 Surface Protected Etching -- 10.3.2.2 Ostwald Ripening -- 10.3.2.3 Kirkendall Effect -- 10.3.2.4 Galvanic Replacement -- 10.4 Medical Applications of HNMs -- 10.4.1 Imaging and Diagnosis Applications -- 10.4.2 Applications of Nanotube Arrays -- 10.4.2.1 Pharmacy and Medicine -- 10.4.2.2 Cancer Therapy -- 10.4.2.3 Immuno and Hyperthermia Therapy -- 10.4.2.4 Infection Therapy and Gene Therapy -- 10.4.3 Hollow Nanomaterials in Diagnostics and Therapeutics -- 10.4.4 Applications in Regenerative Medicine -- 10.4.5 Anti-Neurodegenerative Applications -- 10.4.6 Photothermal Therapy -- 10.4.7 Biosensors. , 10.5 Non-Medical Applications of HNMs -- 10.5.1 Catalytic Micro or Nanoreactors -- 10.5.2 Energy Storage -- 10.5.2.1 Lithium Ion Battery -- 10.5.2.2 Supercapacitor -- 10.5.3 Nanosensors -- 10.5.4 Wastewater Treatment -- 10.6 Toxicity of 2D HNMs -- 10.7 Future Challenges -- 10.8 Conclusion -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Chapter 11 2D Layered Double Hydroxides -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Structural Aspects -- 11.3 Synthesis of LDHs -- 11.3.1 Co-Precipitation Method -- 11.3.2 Urea Hydrolysis -- 11.3.3 Ion-Exchange Method -- 11.3.4 Reconstruction Method -- 11.3.5 Hydrothermal Method -- 11.3.6 Sol-Gel Method -- 11.4 Nonmedical Applications of LDH -- 11.4.1 Adsorbent -- 11.4.2 Catalyst -- 11.4.3 Sensors -- 11.4.4 Electrode -- 11.4.5 Polymer Additive -- 11.4.6 Anion Scavenger -- 11.4.7 Flame Retardant -- 11.5 Biomedical Applications -- 11.5.1 Biosensors -- 11.5.2 Scaffolds -- 11.5.3 Anti-Microbial Agents -- 11.5.4 Drug Delivery -- 11.5.5 Imaging -- 11.5.6 Protein Purification -- 11.5.7 Gene Delivery -- 11.6 Toxicity -- 11.7 Conclusion -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Chapter 12 Experimental Techniques for Layered Materials -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Methods for Synthesis of Graphene Layered Materials -- 12.3 Selection of a Suitable Metallic Substrate -- 12.4 Graphene Synthesis by HFTCVD -- 12.5 Graphene Transfer -- 12.6 Characterization Techniques -- 12.6.1 X-Ray Diffraction Technique -- d D k -- 12.6.2 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) -- 12.6.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) -- 12.6.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Radiation (FTIR) -- 12.6.5 UV-Visible Spectroscopy -- 12.6.6 Raman Spectroscopy -- 12.6.7 Low Energy Electron Microscopy (LEEM) -- 12.7 Potential Applications of Graphene and Derived Materials -- 12.8 Conclusion -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Chapter 13 Two-Dimensional Hexagonal Boron Nitride and Borophenes. , 13.1 Two-Dimensional Hexagonal Boron Nitride (2D h-BN): An Introduction.

Note: Cover -- Half-Title Page -- Series Page -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- 1 Toxic Geogenic Contaminants in Serpentinitic Geological Systems: Occurrence, Behavior, Exposure Pathways, and Human Health Risks -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Serpentinitic Geological Systems -- 1.2.1 Nature, Occurrence, and Geochemistry -- 1.2.2 Occurrence and Behavior of Toxic Contaminants -- 1.3 Human Exposure Pathways -- 1.3.1 Occupational Exposure -- 1.3.2 Non-Occupational Exposure Routes -- 1.4 Human Health Risks and Their Mitigation -- 1.4.1 Health Risks -- 1.4.2 Mitigating Human Exposure and Health Risks -- 1.5 Future Perspectives -- 1.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 2 Benefits of Geochemistry and Its Impact on Human Health -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 General Overview of Geochemistry and Human Health -- 2.2.1 Types of Geochemistry -- 2.2.2 Some Beneficial Effect of Some Mineral With Health Benefits -- 2.2.3 Application of Geochemistry on Human Health -- 2.3 Conclusion and Recommendations -- References -- 3 Applications of Geochemistry in Livestock: Health and Nutritional Perspective -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 General and Global Perspective About Geochemistry in Livestock -- 3.3 Types of Geochemistry and Their Numerous Benefits -- 3.3.1 Analytical Geochemistry -- 3.3.2 Isotope Geochemistry -- 3.3.3 Low Temperature Geochemistry -- 3.3.4 Organic and Petroleum Geochemistry -- 3.4 Application of Geochemistry in Livestock -- 3.5 Geochemistry and Animal Health -- 3.6 General Overview of Geochemistry in Livestock's Merits of Geochemistry/Essential Minerals in Livestocks -- 3.6.1 Specific Examples of Authors That Have Used Essential Minerals in Livestock -- 3.6.2 Livestock in Relation to Geominerals -- 3.6.3 Trace Minerals Parallel Importance in Livestock -- 3.6.4 Heavy Metals Impact Livestock -- 3.7 Conclusion and Recommendations. , References -- 4 Application in Geochemistry Toward the Achievement of a Sustainable Agricultural Science -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 General Overview on the Utilization of Geochemistry and Their Wide Application on Agriculture -- 4.2.1 Classification -- 4.2.2 Chemical Composition of Rocks -- 4.2.3 Effect of Some Beneficial Minerals in Agriculture -- 4.2.4 Beneficial Mineral Nutrients That are Crucial to the Development of Plants -- 4.3 Role of Geochemistry in Agriculture -- 4.4 Geochemical Effects of Heavy Metals on Crops Health -- 4.5 Conclusion and Recommendations -- References -- 5 Geochemistry, Extent of Pollution, and Ecological Impact of Heavy Metal Pollutants in Soil -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Material and Methods -- 5.2.1 Review Process -- 5.2.2 Ecological Risk Index -- 5.3 Toxic Heavy Metal and Their Impact to the Ecosystems -- 5.3.1 Arsenic -- 5.3.2 Cadmium -- 5.3.3 Chromium -- 5.3.4 Copper -- 5.3.5 Lead -- 5.3.6 Nickel -- 5.3.7 Zinc -- 5.4 Metal Pollution in Soil Across the Globe -- 5.5 Ecological and Human Health Risk Impacts of Heavy Metals -- 5.6 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Isotope Geochemistry -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Basic Definitions -- 6.2.1 The Notation -- 6.2.2 The Fractionation Factor -- 6.2.3 Isotope Fractionation -- 6.2.4 Mass Dependent and Independent Fractionations -- 6.3 Application of Traditional Isotopes in Geochemistry -- 6.3.1 Geothermometer -- 6.3.2 Isotopes in Biological System -- 6.3.3 Isotopes in Archaeology -- 6.3.4 Isotopes in Fossils and the Earliest Life -- 6.3.5 Isotopes in Hydrothermal and Ore Deposits -- 6.4 Non-Traditional Isotopes in Geochemistry -- 6.4.1 Application in Tracing of Source -- 6.4.2 Application in Process Tracing -- 6.4.3 Biological Cycling -- 6.5 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Environmental Geochemistry -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Overview of the Environmental Geochemistry -- 7.3 Conclusions. , 7.4 Abbreviations -- Acknowledgment -- References -- 8 Medical Geochemistry -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 The Evolution of Geochemistry -- 8.3 This Science has Expanded Considerably to Become Distinct Branches -- 8.3.1 Cosmochemistry -- 8.3.2 The Economic Importance of Geochemistry -- 8.3.3 Analytical Geochemistry -- 8.3.4 Geochemistry of Radioisotopes -- 8.3.5 Medical Geochemistry and Human Health -- 8.3.6 Environmental Health and Safety -- 8.4 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Inorganic Geochemistry -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Elements and the Earth -- 9.2.1 Iron -- 9.2.2 Oxygen -- 9.2.3 Silicon -- 9.2.4 Magnesium -- 9.3 Geological Minerals -- 9.3.1 Quartz -- 9.3.2 Feldspar -- 9.3.3 Amphibole -- 9.3.4 Pyroxene -- 9.3.5 Olivine -- 9.3.6 Clay Minerals -- 9.3.7 Kaolinite -- 9.3.8 Bentonite, Montmorillonite, Vermiculite, and Biotite -- 9.4 Characterization Techniques -- 9.4.1 Powder X-Ray Diffraction -- 9.4.2 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectra -- 9.4.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectra -- 9.4.4 Electron Probe Micro-Analysis -- 9.4.5 Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry -- 9.4.6 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy -- 9.4.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy Analysis -- 9.4.8 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis -- 9.5 Conclusion -- References -- 10 Introduction and Scope of Geochemistry -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Periodic Table and Electronic Configuration -- 10.2 Periodic Properties -- 10.2.1 Ionization Enthalpy -- 10.2.2 Electron Affinity -- 10.2.3 Electro-Negativity -- 10.3 Chemical Bonding -- 10.3.1 Ionic Bond -- 10.3.2 Covalent Bond -- 10.3.3 Metallic Bond -- 10.3.4 Hydrogen Bond -- 10.3.5 Van der Waals Forces -- 10.4 Geochemical Classification and Distribution of Elements -- 10.4.1 Lithophiles -- 10.4.2 Siderophiles -- 10.4.3 Chalcophiles -- 10.4.4 Atmophiles -- 10.4.5 Biophiles -- 10.5 Chemical Composition of the Earth -- 10.6 Classification of Earth's Layers. , 10.6.1 Based on Chemical Composition -- 10.6.2 Based on Physical Properties -- 10.7 Spheres of the Earth -- 10.7.1 Geosphere/Lithosphere -- 10.7.2 Hydrosphere -- 10.7.3 Biosphere -- 10.7.4 Atmosphere -- 10.7.5 Troposphere -- 10.7.6 Stratosphere -- 10.7.7 Mesosphere -- 10.7.8 Thermosphere and Ionosphere -- 10.7.9 Exosphere -- 10.8 Sub-Disciplines of Geochemistry -- 10.9 Scope of Geochemistry -- 10.10 Conclusion -- References -- Index -- EULA.

Note: Cover -- Half-Title Page -- Series Page -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- 1 Natural Polysaccharides From Aloe vera L. Gel (Aloe barbadensis Miller): Processing Techniques and Analytical Methods -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.1.1 Gel Composition from A. vera -- 1.2 Applications of A. vera Mucilaginous Gel or Fractions -- 1.3 Aloe vera Gel Processing -- 1.3.1 Obtaining Polysaccharide Fraction or Acemannan -- 1.4 Analytical Methods Applied -- 1.4.1 Total Carbohydrates, Oligosaccharides, Acemannan and Free Sugars -- 1.4.2 Analytical Techniques -- 1.4.2.1 Chromatography Analysis -- 1.4.2.2 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) -- 1.4.2.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy -- 1.4.2.4 Mass Spectrometry -- 1.4.2.5 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy -- 1.4.2.6 Comprehensive Microarray Polymer Profiling -- 1.5 Conclusion -- References -- 2 Cell Wall Polysaccharides -- 2.1 Introduction to Cell Wall -- 2.2 Plant Cell Wall Polysaccharides -- 2.2.1 Cellulose -- 2.2.2 Hemicellulose -- 2.2.2.1 Xyloglucan -- 2.2.2.2 Xylans -- 2.2.2.3 Mannans -- 2.2.3 Callose -- 2.2.4 Pectic Polysaccharides -- 2.2.4.1 Homogalacturonan (HG) -- 2.2.4.2 Arabinan -- 2.3 Algal Cell Wall Polysaccharides -- 2.3.1 Alginates -- 2.3.2 Sulfated Galactans -- 2.3.3 Fucoidans -- 2.4 Fungal Cell Wall Polysaccharides -- 2.4.1 Glucan -- 2.4.2 Chitin and Chitosan -- 2.5 Bacterial Cell Wall Polysaccharides -- 2.5.1 Peptidoglycan -- 2.5.2 Lipopolysaccharides -- References -- 3 Marine Polysaccharides: Properties and Applications -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Polysaccharide Origins -- 3.3 Properties -- 3.3.1 Cellulose -- 3.3.2 Chitosan -- 3.3.3 Alginate -- 3.3.4 Carrageenan -- 3.3.5 Agar -- 3.3.6 Porphyran -- 3.3.7 Fucoidan -- 3.3.8 Ulvan -- 3.3.9 Exopolysaccharides From Microalgae -- 3.4 Applications of Polysaccharides -- 3.4.1 Biomedical Applications -- 3.4.1.1 Cellulose -- 3.4.1.2 Chitosan. , 3.4.1.3 Alginate -- 3.4.2 Food Applications -- 3.4.2.1 Cellulose -- 3.4.2.2 Chitosan -- 3.4.2.3 Alginates -- 3.4.2.4 Carrageenan -- 3.4.2.5 Agar -- 3.4.3 Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Applications -- 3.4.3.1 Cellulose -- 3.4.3.2 Chitosan -- 3.4.3.3 Alginate -- 3.4.3.4 Carrageenan -- 3.4.3.5 Porphyran -- 3.4.3.6 Fucoidan -- 3.4.4 Agriculture -- 3.5 Conclusions -- References -- 4 Seaweed Polysaccharides: Structure, Extraction and Applications -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.1.1 Agar -- 4.1.2 Carrageenan -- 4.1.3 Alginate (Alginic Acid, Algin) -- 4.1.4 Fucoidan -- 4.1.5 Laminaran -- 4.1.6 Ulvan -- 4.2 Conclusion -- References -- 5 Agars: Properties and Applications -- 5.1 History and Origin of Agar -- 5.1.1 Agarophytes Used in Agar Manufacturing -- 5.2 Physical Properties of Agar Producing Seaweeds -- 5.3 Agar Manufacturing -- 5.3.1 Types of Agar Manufacturing -- 5.3.1.1 Freeze-Thaw Method -- 5.3.1.2 Syneresis Method -- 5.4 Structure of Agar -- 5.5 Heterogeneity of Agar -- 5.6 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Agar -- 5.7 Chemical Characteristics of Agar -- 5.8 Factors Influencing the Characteristics of Agar -- 5.8.1 Techniques to Analyze the Fine Chemical Structure of Agar -- 5.8.2 Synergies and Antagonisms of Agar Gels -- 5.9 Uses of Agar in Various Sectors -- 5.9.1 Applications of Agar in Food Industry -- 5.9.2 Application of Agar in Harvesting Insects and Worms -- 5.9.3 Vegetable Tissue Culture Formulations -- 5.9.4 Culture Media for Microbes -- 5.9.5 Industrial Applications of Agar -- 5.10 Conclusion and Discussion -- References -- 6 Biopolysaccharides: Properties and Applications -- 6.1 Structure and Classification of Biopolysaccharides -- 6.1.1 Structure -- 6.1.2 Classification -- 6.1.3 Structural Characterization Techniques -- 6.2 Uses and Applications of Biopolysaccharides -- 6.2.1 Functional Fibers -- 6.2.2 Biomedicine. , 6.2.2.1 Tissue Engineering -- 6.2.2.2 Wound Healing -- 6.2.2.3 Drug Loading and Delivery -- 6.2.2.4 Therapeutics -- 6.2.3 Cosmetics -- 6.2.4 Foods and Food Ingredients -- 6.2.5 Biofuels -- 6.2.6 Wastewater Treatment -- 6.2.7 Textiles -- 6.3 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Chitosan Derivatives: Properties and Applications -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Properties of Chitosan Derivatives -- 7.2.1 Physiochemical Properties -- 7.2.2 Functional Properties -- 7.2.3 Biological Properties of Chitosan -- 7.3 Applications of Chitosan Derivatives -- 7.3.1 Anticancer Agents -- 7.3.2 Bone Tissue Material Formation -- 7.3.3 Wound Healing, Tissue Regeneration and Antimicrobial Resistance -- 7.3.4 Drug Delivery -- 7.3.5 Chromatographic Separations -- 7.3.6 Waste Management -- 7.3.7 Food Industry -- 7.3.8 In Cosmetics -- 7.3.9 In Paint as Antifouling Coatings -- 7.4 Conclusions -- Acknowledgement -- References -- 8 Green Seaweed Polysaccharides Inventory of Nador Lagoon in North East Morocco -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Nador Lagoon: Situation and Characteristics -- 8.3 Seaweed -- 8.4 Polysaccharides in Seaweed -- 8.5 Algae Polysaccharides in Nador Lagoon's Seaweed -- 8.5.1 C. prolifera -- 8.5.1.1 Sulfated Galactans -- 8.5.2 U. rigida & -- E. intestinalis -- 8.5.2.1 Ulvan -- 8.5.3 C. adhaerens, C. bursa, C. tomentosum -- 8.5.3.1 Sulfated Arabinans -- 8.5.3.2 Sulfated Arabinogalactans -- 8.5.3.3 Mannans -- 8.6 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Salep Glucomannan: Properties and Applications -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Production -- 9.3 Composition and Physicochemical Structure -- 9.4 Rheological Properties -- 9.5 Purification and Deacetylation -- 9.6 Food Applications -- 9.6.1 Beverage -- 9.6.2 Ice Cream and Emulsion Stabilizing -- 9.6.3 Edible Film/Coating -- 9.6.4 Gelation -- 9.7 Health Benefits -- 9.8 Conclusions and Future Trends -- References. , 10 Exudate Tree Gums: Properties and Applications -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Gum Arabic -- 10.1.2 Gum Karaya -- 10.1.3 Gum Kondagogu -- 10.1.4 Gum Ghatti -- 10.1.5 Gum Tragacanth -- 10.1.6 Gum Olibanum -- 10.2 Nanobiotechnology Applications -- 10.3 Minor Tree Gums -- 10.4 Conclusions -- Acknowledgment -- References -- 11 Cellulose and its Derivatives: Properties and Applications -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Main Raw Materials -- 11.3 Composition and Chemical Structure of Lignocellulosic Materials -- 11.4 Cellulose: Chemical Backbone and Crystalline Formats -- 11.5 Cellulose Extraction -- 11.5.1 Mechanical Methods -- 11.5.2 Chemical Methods -- 11.6 Cellulose Products and its Derivatives -- 11.7 Main Applications -- 11.8 Conclusion -- References -- 12 Starch and its Derivatives: Properties and Applications -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Starch -- 12.2.1 Size, Morphology and Crystallinity of Starch Granules -- 12.2.2 Physical Properties due to Associated Lipids, Proteins and Phosphorus With Starch Granules -- 12.2.3 Solubility and Swelling Capacity of Starch -- 12.2.4 Gelatinization and Retrogradation of Starch -- 12.2.5 Birefringence and Glass Transition Temperature of Starch -- 12.2.6 Rheological and Thermal Properties of Starch -- 12.2.7 Transmittance and Opacity of Starch -- 12.2.8 Melt Processability of Starch -- 12.3 Modification of Starch -- 12.3.1 Physical Modification of Starch -- 12.3.2 Chemical Modification of Starch -- 12.3.3 Dual Modification of Starch -- 12.3.4 Enzymatic Modification of Starch -- 12.3.5 Genetic Modification of Starch -- 12.4 Application of Starch and its Derivatives -- 12.4.1 In Food Industry -- 12.4.2 In Paper Industry -- 12.4.3 Starch as Binders -- 12.4.4 In Detergent Products -- 12.4.5 As Biodegradable Thermoplastic Materials or Bioplastics. , 12.4.6 In Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries -- 12.4.7 As Industrial Raw Materials -- 12.4.8 As Adsorbents for Environmental Applications -- 12.4.9 As Food Packaging Materials -- 12.4.10 In Drug Delivery -- 12.4.11 As Antimicrobial Films and Coatings -- 12.4.12 In Advanced Functional Materials -- 12.5 Conclusion -- References -- 13 Crystallization of Polysaccharides -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Principles of Crystallization of Polysaccharides -- 13.3 Techniques for Crystallinity Measurement -- 13.4 Crystallization Behavior of Polysaccharides -- 13.4.1 Cellulose -- 13.4.2 Chitosan and Chitin -- 13.4.3 Starch -- 13.5 Polymer/Polysaccharide Crystalline Nanocomposites -- 13.6 Conclusion -- References -- 14 Polysaccharides as Novel Materials for Tissue Engineering Applications -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Types of Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering -- 14.3 Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering -- 14.4 Polysaccharide-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering -- 14.4.1 Alginate-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.2 Chitosan-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.3 Cellulose-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.4 Dextran and Pullulan-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.5 Starch-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.6 Xanthan-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.7 Glycosaminoglycans-Based Scaffolds -- 14.5 Current Challenges and Future Perspectives -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 15 Structure and Solubility of Polysaccharides -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 Polysaccharide Structure and Solubility in Water -- 15.3 Solubility and Molecular Weight -- 15.4 Solubility and Branching -- 15.5 Polysaccharide Solutions -- 15.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 16 Polysaccharides: An Efficient Tool for Fabrication of Carbon Nanomaterials -- 16.1 Introduction -- 16.2 Aerogels -- 16.2.1 Plant and Bacterial Cellulose -- 16.2.2 Carbon Derived From Nanocrystalline Cellulose of Plant Origin. , 16.2.3 Carbon Aerogels Produced From Bacterial Cellulose.