Note: Cover -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Contributors -- Foreword -- Preface -- Acknowledgment -- Section 1: The Ocean and Climate -- Chapter 1.1. Climate and Oceans -- 1.1.1 WOCE and the World Climate Research Programme -- 1.1.2 The scientific approach to the complex climate system -- 1.1.3 Ocean-atmosphere interaction and climate -- 1.1.4 Rapid changes related to the oceans -- 1.1.5 Cryosphere and the oceans -- 1.1.6 Anthropogenic climate change and the oceans -- 1.1.7 Future climate research and ocean observing systems -- Chapter 1.2. Ocean Processes and Climate Phenomena -- 1.2.1 A global perspective -- 1.2.2 Air-sea fluxes -- 1.2.3 Ocean storage of heat and fresh water -- 1.2.4 Ocean circulation -- 1.2.5 Ocean transport of heat, fresh water and carbon -- 1.2.6 Climatic and oceanic variability -- 1.2.7 Impacts of ocean climate -- 1.2.8 Conclusion -- Chapter 1.3. The Origins, Development and Conduct of WOCE -- 1.3.1 Introduction -- 1.3.2 Large-scale oceanography in the 1960s and 1970s -- 1.3.3 Ocean research and climate -- 1.3.4 Implementation of WOCE (SSG initiatives) -- 1.3.5 Implementation and oversight -- 1.3.6 Was WOCE a success and what is its legacy? -- Section 2: Observations and Models -- Chapter 2.1. Global Problems and Global Observations -- 2.1.1 Different views of the ocean -- 2.1.2 The origins of WOCE -- 2.1.3 What do we know? -- 2.1.4 The need for global-scale observations -- 2.1.5 Where do we go from here? -- Chapter 2.2. High-Resolution Modelling of the Thermohaline and Wind-Driven Circulation -- 2.2.1 The improving realism of ocean models -- 2.2.2 Historical perspective -- 2.2.3 Basic model design considerations: equilibrium versus non-equilibrium solutions -- 2.2.4 Examples of model behaviour in different dynamical regimes -- 2.2.5 Concluding remarks -- Chapter 2.3. Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Models -- 2.3.1 Why coupled models?. , 2.3.2 Formulation of coupled models -- 2.3.3 Model drift and flux adjustment -- 2.3.4 Initialization of coupled models -- 2.3.5 Coupled model simulation of present and past climates -- 2.3.6 Coupled model simulation of future climates -- 2.3.7 Climate models, WOCE and future observations -- 2.3.8 Summary and future developments -- Section 3: New Ways of Observing the Ocean -- Chapter 3.1. Shipboard Observations during WOCE -- 3.1.1 The role of hydrographic measurements -- 3.1.2 CTD and sample measurements -- 3.1.3 Current measurements in the shipboard hydrographic programme -- 3.1.4 Shipboard meteorology -- 3.1.5 Summary and conclusions -- Chapter 3.2. Subsurface Lagrangian Observations during the 1990s -- 3.2.1 Determining currents in the ocean -- 3.2.2 Historical aspects: Stommel's -- 3.2.3 The WOCE Float Programme -- 3.2.4 WOCE float observations -- 3.2.5 The future -- Chapter 3.3. Ocean Circulation and Variability from Satellite Altimetry -- 3.3.1 Altimeter observations -- 3.3.2 The ocean general circulation -- 3.3.3 Large-scale sea-level variability -- 3.3.4 Currents and eddies -- 3.3.5 Concluding discussions -- Chapter 3.4. Air-Sea Fluxes from Satellite Data -- 3.4.1 Forcing the ocean -- 3.4.2 Bulk parameterization -- 3.4.3 Wind forcing -- 3.4.4 Thermal forcing -- 3.4.5 Hydrologic forcing -- 3.4.6 Future prospects -- Chapter 3.5. Developing the WOCE Global Data System -- 3.5.1 Organization and planning for WOCE data systems -- 3.5.2 Elements of the WOCE Data System -- 3.5.3 The WOCE Global Data Set and future developments -- Section 4: The Global Flow Field -- Chapter 4.1. The World Ocean Surface Circulation -- 4.1.1 Background -- 4.1.2 Methodology -- 4.1.3 The global mean velocity and velocity variance -- 4.1.4 The wind-driven Ekman currents -- 4.1.5 Future global circulation observations -- Chapter 4.2. The Interior Circulation of the Ocean. , 4.2.1 Processes in the ocean interior -- 4.2.2 Observational evidence -- 4.2.3 Theory of gyre-scale circulation -- 4.2.4 The abyssal circulation -- 4.2.5 Conclusions -- Chapter 4.3. The Tropical Ocean Circulation -- 4.3.1 Flow and water mass transformation patterns -- 4.3.2 Equatorial phenomena in the Pacific Ocean -- 4.3.3 Equatorial Atlantic -- 4.3.4 Near-equatorial circulation in the Indian Ocean -- 4.3.5 Overall conclusions -- Chapter 4.4. Tropical-Extratropical Oceanic Exchange Pathways -- 4.4.1 The role of diffusion and advection -- 4.4.2 Tropical-subtropical exchanges of thermocline waters -- 4.4.3 Tropical-subpolar exchange of Intermediate Waters -- 4.4.4 Summary and further issues -- Chapter 4.5. Quantification of the Deep Circulation -- 4.5.1 Deep circulation in the framework of WOCE -- 4.5.2 Deep Western Boundary Currents -- 4.5.3 The interior: The Deep Basin Experiment -- 4.5.4 Summary -- Chapter 4.6. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current System -- 4.6.1 Flow in the zonally unbounded ocean -- 4.6.2 Observations of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current -- 4.6.3 Dynamics of the ACC -- 4.6.4 Water mass formation and conversion -- 4.6.5 The Southern Ocean and the global overturning circulations -- 4.6.6 Conclusions -- Chapter 4.7. Interocean Exchange -- 4.7.1 Interocean links -- 4.7.2 Bering Strait -- 4.7.3 Indonesian Seas -- 4.7.4 The Agulhas Retroflection -- 4.7.5 Discussion -- Section 5: Formation and Transport of Water Masses -- Chapter 5.1. Ocean Surface Water Mass Transformation -- 5.1.1 The problem -- 5.1.2 Theory of surface water mass transformation -- 5.1.3 Ocean surface temperature, salinity and density -- 5.1.4 Surface fluxes of heat, fresh water and density -- 5.1.5 Surface water mass transformation and formation -- 5.1.6 Summary -- Chapter 5.2. Mixing and Stirring in the Ocean Interior -- 5.2.1 Scales of mixing and stirring. , 5.2.2 Background -- 5.2.3 The Temporal-Residual-Mean circulation -- 5.2.4 Lateral dispersion between the mesoscale and the microscale -- 5.2.5 Diapycnal mixing in and above the main thermocline -- 5.2.6 Mixing in the abyss -- 5.2.7 Discussion -- Chapter 5.3. Subduction -- 5.3.1 A little of the background on oceanic subduction -- 5.3.2 Surface-layer dynamics and thermodynamics of the subduction process -- 5.3.3 Development of steady, continuous models: Application to numerical model analysis and observations -- 5.3.4 Transient response of the thermocline to decadal variability -- 5.3.5 Summary and outlook -- Chapter 5.4. Mode Waters -- 5.4.1 Ventilation and mode water generation -- 5.4.2 Definition, detection and general characteristics of mode waters -- 5.4.3 Geographical distribution of mixed-layer depth and mode waters in the world's oceans -- 5.4.4 Temporal variability of mode water properties and distribution -- 5.4.5 Summary -- Chapter 5.5. Deep Convection -- 5.5.1 Convection and spreading -- 5.5.2 Plumes - the mixing agent -- 5.5.3 Temperature and salinity variability -- 5.5.4 Restratification -- 5.5.5 Summary and discussion -- Chapter 5.6. The Dense Northern Overflows -- 5.6.1 The sources -- 5.6.2 Overflow paths -- 5.6.3 Observed transport means and variability -- 5.6.4 Processes in the overflows -- 5.6.5 Analytical models of the overflow -- 5.6.6 Numerical models of the overflow -- 5.6.7 Overflow variability -- 5.6.8 What have we learnt in WOCE? -- Chapter 5.7. Mediterranean Water and Global Circulation -- 5.7.1 Marginal seas -- 5.7.2 Formation of Mediterranean Water -- 5.7.3 Outflow of Mediterranean Water at the Strait of Gibraltar -- 5.7.4 The effect of Mediterranean Water outflow on the circulation of the North Atlantic and the World Oceans -- Chapter 5.8. Transformation and Age of Water Masses -- 5.8.1 Background. , 5.8.2 Tracer methodology and techniques -- 5.8.3 Exemplary results -- 5.8.4 Outlook -- Section 6: Large-Scale Ocean Transports -- Chapter 6.1. Ocean Heat Transport -- 6.1.1 The global heat balance -- 6.1.2 Bulk formula estimates of ocean heat transport -- 6.1.3 Residual method estimates of ocean heat transport -- 6.1.4 Direct estimates of ocean heat transport -- 6.1.5 Discussion -- 6.1.6 Challenges -- 6.1.7 Summary -- 6.1.8 Outlook for direct estimates of ocean heat transport -- Chapter 6.2. Ocean Transport of Fresh Water -- 6.2.1 The importance of freshwater transport -- 6.2.2 Indirect estimates of oceanic freshwater transport -- 6.2.3 Impacts of uncertainties on model development -- 6.2.4 Direct ocean estimates of freshwater transport -- 6.2.5 Comparison of direct and indirect flux estimates -- 6.2.6 Mechanisms of oceanic freshwater transport -- 6.2.7 Global budgets -- 6.2.8 Summary -- Chapter 6.3. Storage and Transport of Excess CO2 in the Oceans: The JGOFS/WOCE Global CO2 Survey -- 6.3.1 Introduction -- 6.3.2 Background -- 6.3.3 The JGOFS/WOCE Global CO2 Survey -- 6.3.4 Synthesis of Global CO2 Survey data: Review -- 6.3.5 Conclusions and outlook -- Section 7: Insights for the Future -- Chapter 7.1. Towards a WOCE Synthesis -- 7.1.1 Exploiting the WOCE data set -- 7.1.2 Data-based analyses -- 7.1.3 Model evaluation and development -- 7.1.4 Ocean state estimation -- 7.1.5 Summary and outlook -- Chapter 7.2. Numerical Ocean Circulation Modelling: Present Status and Future Directions -- 7.2.1 Remarks on the history of ocean modelling -- 7.2.2 Space-time scales of ocean processes and models -- 7.2.3 Modelling issues -- 7.2.4 Atmospheric forcing and coupling -- 7.2.5 Organization of model development -- 7.2.6 Concluding remarks -- Chapter 7.3. The World during WOCE -- 7.3.1 Assessing the representativeness of the WOCE data set. , 7.3.2 The state of the atmosphere during WOCE.

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