Note: UNDERSTANDING SEA-LEVEL RISE AND VARIABILITY -- Contents -- Editor Biographies -- Contributors -- Foreword -- Acknowledgments -- Abbreviations and Acronyms -- 1: Introduction -- References -- 2: Impacts of and Responsesto Sea-Level Rise -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Climate Change and Global/Relative Sea-Level Rise -- 2.3 Sea-Level Rise and Resulting Impacts -- 2.4 Framework and Methods for the Analysis of Sea-Level-Rise Impacts -- 2.5 Recent Impacts of Sea-Level Rise -- 2.6 Future Impacts of Sea-Level Rise -- 2.7 Responding to Sea-Level Rise -- 2.8 Next Steps -- 2.9 Concluding Remarks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 3: A First-Order Assessment of the Impact of Long-Term Trends in Extreme Sea Levels on Offshore Structures and Coastal Refineries -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Design Considerations -- 3.3 Impact of Long-Term Trends in Extreme Sea Levels -- 3.4 Evaluating the Economic Impact -- 3.5 Conclusions -- References -- 4: Paleoenvironmental Records, Geophysical Modeling, and Reconstruction of Sea-Level Trends and Variability on Centennial and Longer Timescales -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Past Sea-Level Changes -- 4.3 Sea-Level Indicators -- 4.4 Geophysical Modeling of Variability in Relative Sea-Level History -- 4.5 Regional Case Studies -- 4.6 Discussion and Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 5: Modern Sea-Level-Change Estimates -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Estimates from Proxy Sea-Level Records -- 5.3 Estimates of Global Sea-Level Change from Tide Gauges -- 5.4 Estimates of Global Sea-Level Change from Satellite Altimetry -- 5.5 Recommendations -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 6: Ocean Temperature and Salinity Contributions to Global and Regional Sea-Level Change -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Direct Estimates of Steric Sea-Level Rise -- 6.3 Estimating Steric Sea-Level Change Using Ocean Syntheses. , 6.4 Inferring Steric Sea Level from Time-Variable Gravity and Sea Level -- 6.5 Modeling Steric Sea-Level Rise -- 6.6 Conclusions and Recommendations -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 7: Cryospheric Contributions to Sea-Level Rise and Variability -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Mass-Balance Techniques -- 7.3 Ice-Sheet Mass Balance -- 7.4 Mass Balance of Glaciers and Ice Caps -- 7.5 Glacier, Ice-Cap, and Ice-Sheet Modeling -- 7.6 Summary and Recommendations -- References -- 8: Terrestrial Water-Storage Contributions to Sea-Level Rise and Variability -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Analysis Tools -- 8.3 Climate-Driven Changes of Terrestrial Water Storage -- 8.4 Direct Anthropogenic Changes of Terrestrial Water Storage -- 8.5 Synthesis -- 8.6 Recommendations -- References -- 9: Geodetic Observations and Global Reference Frame Contributions to Understanding Sea-Level Rise and Variability -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Global and Regional Reference Systems -- 9.3 Linking GPS to Tide Gauges and Tide-Gauge Benchmarks -- 9.4 Recommendations for Geodetic Observations -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 10: Surface Mass Loading on a Dynamic Earth:Complexity and Contamination in the Geodetic Analysis of Global Sea-Level Trends -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Glacial Isostatic Adjustment -- 10.3 Sea Level, Sea Surface, and the Geoid -- 10.4 Rapid Melting and Sea-Level Fingerprints -- 10.5 Great Earthquakes -- 10.6 Final Remarks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 11: Past and Future Changes in Extreme Sea Levels and Waves -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Evidence for Changes in Extreme Sea Levels and Waves in the Recent Past -- 11.3 Mid-Latitude and Tropical Storms: Changes in the Atmospheric Drivers of Extreme Sea Level -- 11.4 Future Extreme Water Levels -- 11.5 Future Research Needs -- 11.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References. , 12: Observing Systems Needed to Address Sea-evel Rise and Variability -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Sustained, Systematic Observing Systems(Existing Capabilities) -- 12.3 Development of Improved Observing Systems(New Capabilities) -- 12.4 Summary -- References -- 13: Sea-Level Rise and Variability: Synthesis and Outlook for the Future -- 13.1 Historical Sea-Level Change -- 13.2 Why is Sea Level Rising? -- 13.3 The Regional Distribution of Sea-Level Rise -- 13.4 Projections of Sea-Level Rise for the 21st Century and Beyond -- 13.5 Changes in Extreme Events -- 13.6 Sea Level and Society -- References -- Index.

Note: Front Cover -- Ocean Circulation and Climate: A 21st Century Perspective -- Copyright -- Contents -- Contributors -- Acknowledgments -- Cover Graphics -- Preface -- Part I: The Ocean's Role in the Climate System -- Chapter 1: The Ocean as a Component of the Climate System -- 1. Setting the Scene -- 2. The Ocean as an Exchanging Earth System Reservoir -- 3. Atmosphere-Ocean Fluxes and Meridional Transports -- 4. Global-Scale Surface and Deep Ocean Circulations -- 5. Large-Scale Modes of Variability Involving the Ocean -- 6. The Ocean's Role in Past Climate Change -- 7. The Ocean in the Anthropocene -- 8. Concluding Thoughts -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 2: Paleoclimatic Ocean Circulation and Sea-Level Changes -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Reconstructing Past Ocean States -- 2.1. Proxies for Past Ocean Circulation -- 2.1.1. Nutrient Water Mass Tracers -- 2.1.2. Conservative Water Mass Tracers -- 2.1.3. Circulation Rate Tracers -- 2.1.4. Other Tracers -- 2.2. Past Sea-Level Proxies -- 2.2.1. Coastal Morphology and Corals -- 2.2.2. Sediment Cores -- 2.2.3. Manmade Sea-Level Indicators -- 2.3. Models -- 3. The Oceans in the Quaternary -- 3.1. The Last Glacial Maximum -- 3.2. Abrupt Glacial Climate Changes -- 3.2.1. Deglaciation -- 3.3. Glacial Cycles -- 3.4. Interglacial Climates -- 4. The Deeper Past -- 4.1. Challenges of Deep-Time Paleoceanography -- 4.2. The Oceans During the Mid-Cretaceous Warm Period -- 5. Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Part II: Ocean Observations -- Chapter 3: In Situ Ocean Observations: A Brief History, Present Status, and Future Directions -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Development of Present Observational Capability -- 2.1. Late Nineteenth to Mid-Twentieth Centuries -- 2.2. Second Half of Twentieth Century -- 2.3. Twenty-First Century: Consolidation of Capabilities and Growth of Sustained Observations. , 3. Emerging and Specialized Ocean Observing Technologies -- 3.1. Advanced Observing Platforms -- 3.2. Specialized Observing Systems and Technologies -- 3.3. New Sensors -- 4. Changes in Data Volume and Coverage and Implication for Synthesis Products -- 5. The Future: Outstanding Issues and a New Framework for Global Ocean Observing -- 5.1. Building on OceanObs'09 -- 6. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4: Remote Sensing of the Global Ocean Circulation -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Ocean General Circulation -- 3. Variability of the Large-Scale Ocean Circulation -- 3.1. Sea Surface Height -- 3.2. Ocean Mass and Bottom Pressure -- 3.3. Global Mean Sea-Level Change (see also Chapter 27) -- 3.4. Forcing by the Atmosphere and Air-Sea Interaction -- 4. Mesoscale Eddies and Fronts -- 4.1. Mapping the Eddy Field -- 4.2. Wave Number Spectra and the Ocean Energy Cascade -- 4.3. Seasonal and Interannual Variations in Eddy Energy -- 4.4. Tracking Individual Eddies -- 4.5. Surface Currents from Multisensor Mapping -- 4.6. Eddy Fluxes of Ocean Properties (see also Chapter 8) -- 4.7. Submesoscale Dynamics -- 4.8. Eddies and Biogeochemical Processes -- 5. Summary and Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Part III: Ocean Processes -- Chapter 5: Exchanges Through the Ocean Surface -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Air-Sea Exchange Formulae and Climatological Fields -- 2.1. Air-Sea Exchange Formulae -- 2.2. Climatological Fields -- 3. Measurement Techniques and Review of Datasets -- 3.1. Flux Measurement and Estimation Techniques -- 3.1.1. Advances in Parameterizations and In Situ Flux Measurements -- 3.1.2. High Quality In Situ Surface Flux Datasets -- 3.2. Flux Datasets: Overview of Recent Products -- 3.2.1. Atmospheric Reanalyses -- 3.2.2. Satellite Observations -- 3.2.3. In Situ Observations -- 3.2.4. Blended Products -- 3.3. Flux Datasets: Evaluation Techniques. , 4. Variability and Extremes -- 4.1. Impacts of Large-Scale Modes of Variability on Surface Fluxes -- 4.2. Surface Flux Response to Anthropogenic Climate Change -- 4.3. Transfers Under Extreme Conditions -- 5. Ocean Impacts -- 5.1. Impacts on Near-Surface Ocean Layer Properties, Water Mass Transformation -- 5.2. Impacts of Surface Fluxes on Ocean Circulation -- 6. Outlook and Conclusions -- 6.1. Prospects for Improved Flux Datasets -- 6.2. Prospects for Enhanced Observational Constraints -- 6.3. Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 6: Thermodynamics of Seawater -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Absolute Salinity SA and Preformed Salinity S* -- 2.1. Reference-Composition Salinity SR -- 2.2. Absolute Salinity SA -- 2.3. Preformed Salinity S* -- 3. The Gibbs-Function Approach to Evaluating Thermodynamic Properties -- 4. The First Law of Thermodynamics and Conservative Temperature Θ -- 5. The 48-Term Expression for Specific Volume -- 6. Changes to Oceanographic Practice Under TEOS-10 -- 7. Ocean Modeling Using TEOS-10 -- 8. Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 7: Diapycnal Mixing Processes in the Ocean Interior -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Mixing Basics -- 3. Turbulence in and Below the Surface Mixed Layer -- 3.1. Langmuir Turbulence -- 3.2. Inertial Motions -- 3.3. An Equatorial Example -- 3.4. Fronts and Other Lateral Processes -- 4. Mixing in the Ocean Interior -- 4.1. Internal Wave Breaking -- 4.1.1. Dissipation Near Internal Tide Generation Sites -- 4.1.2. Dissipation Near-Inertial Wave Generation Sites -- 4.1.3. Wave-Wave Interactions -- 4.1.4. Distant Graveyards -- 4.2. Mixing in Fracture Zones -- 4.3. Mesoscale Dissipation as a Source of Turbulent Mixing -- 4.4. In-Depth Example: Southern Ocean Mixing (see also Chapter 18) -- 5. Discussion -- 5.1. Finescale Parameterizations of Turbulent Mixing. , 5.2. Global Values and Patterns -- 5.3. Representing Patchy Mixing in Large-Scale Models: Progress and Consequences -- 6. Summary and Future Directions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 8: Lateral Transport in the Ocean Interior -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Theory of Mass, Tracer, and Vector Transport -- 2.1. Fundamental Equations -- 2.1.1. Primitive Equations -- 2.1.2. Minimal-Disturbance Planes and Slopes -- 2.1.3. Density-Coordinate Continuity and Tracer Equations -- 2.2. Steady, Conservative Equations -- 2.3. Reynolds-Averaged Equations -- 2.4. Diffusion by Continuous Movements -- 2.4.1. Diagnosing Eigenvectors, Eigenvalues, and Principal Axes of Diffusivities -- 2.5. Sources of Anisotropy in Oceanic Diffusion -- 2.6. The Veronis Effect -- 2.7. Streamfunction and Diffusivity -- 3. Observations and Models of Spatial Variations of Eddy Statistics -- 4. Mesoscale Isoneutral Diffusivity Variation Parameterizations -- 4.1. Parameterizations Versus Diagnosed K -- 4.1.1. Eddy Scales Versus Instability Scale -- 4.1.2. Eddy Versus Instability Spatial Scale -- 4.1.3. Eddy Versus Instability Time Scale -- 4.2. New Parameterization Approaches and Future Developments -- 5. Conclusions and Remaining Questions -- Acknowledgment -- References -- Chapter 9: Global Distribution and Formation of Mode Waters -- 1. Mode Water Observations -- 2. Global Water Mass Census of the Upper Ocean -- 3. Global Distribution of Mode Water -- 4. Formation of Mode Water -- 5. PV Framework -- 6. Mode Water and Climate -- 7. Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 10: Deepwater Formation -- 1. Introduction -- 1.1. Circulation and Distribution of NADW and AABW -- 1.2. Observed Heat Content Changes in AABW -- 1.3. Observed Heat Content Changes in Upper and Lower NADW -- 2. Processes of Deepwater Formation. , 2.1. Deep Convection: The Example of Formation of Upper North Atlantic Deep Water -- 2.2. Entrainment: The Example of the Formation of the Lower North Atlantic Deep Water -- 2.3. Shelf and Under-Ice Processes: The Example of Formation of AABW -- 2.3.1. Formation Rates and Spreading of AABW -- 3. Interannual and Decadal Variability in Properties, Formation Rate, and Circulation -- 3.1. Labrador Sea Water: Variability in Properties and Formation Rate -- 3.2. Greenland-Scotland Ridge Overflow Water: Variability in Properties and Overflow Rate -- 3.3. Relationship Between Formation Rates of NADW and Changes in the AMOC -- 3.4. Antarctic Bottom Water: Variability in Properties and Formation Rate -- 4. Conclusions and Outlook -- References -- Part IV: Ocean Circulation and Water Masses -- Chapter 11: Conceptual Models of the Wind-Driven and Thermohaline Circulation -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Wind-Driven Circulation -- 2.1. Ekman Layer and Ekman Overturning Cells -- 2.2. Sverdrup Balance -- 2.3. Western Boundary Currents and Inertial Recirculation -- 2.4. Vertical Structure of the Wind-Driven Circulation -- 2.5. Role of Bottom Topography -- 3. Thermohaline Circulation -- 3.1. Energetics and Global Perspective -- 3.2. Role of the Southern Ocean and Relation to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current -- 3.3. Water Mass Formation -- 3.4. Three-Dimensional Structure of the THC -- 3.5. Feedbacks and Multiple Equilibria -- 3.6. Does the South Atlantic Determine the Stability of the THC? -- 4. Transient Behaviour of the Wind-Driven and Thermohaline Circulation -- 5. Discussion and Perspective -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 12: Ocean Surface Circulation -- 1. Observed Near-Surface Currents -- 1.1. Global Drifter Program and History of Lagrangian Observations -- 1.2. Mean Surface Circulation -- 2. Geostrophic Surface Circulation. , 2.1. High-Resolution Mean Dynamic Topography.

Note: Includes bibliographical references and index

Note: Literaturangaben und Index (S. 843 - 868)