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  • 1
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    Sea surface temperature signatures of oceanic internal waves in low winds (2007)
    American Geophysical Union
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © American Geophysical Union, 2007. This article is posted here by permission of American Geophysical Union for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Geophysical Research 112 (2007): C06014, doi:10.1029/2006JC003947.
    Description: In aerial surveys conducted during the Tropical Ocean–Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment and the low-wind component of the Coupled Boundary Layer Air-Sea Transfer (CBLAST-Low) oceanographic field programs, sea surface temperature (SST) variability at relatively short spatial scales (O(50 m) to O(1 km)) was observed to increase with decreasing wind speed. A unique set of coincident surface and subsurface oceanic temperature measurements from CBLAST-Low is used to investigate the subsurface expression of this spatially organized SST variability, and the SST variability is linked to internal waves. The data are used to test two previously hypothesized mechanisms for SST signatures of oceanic internal waves: a modulation of the cool-skin effect and a modulation of vertical mixing within the diurnal warm layer. Under conditions of weak winds and strong insolation (which favor formation of a diurnal warm layer), the data reveal a link between the spatially periodic SST fluctuations and subsurface temperature and velocity fluctuations associated with oceanic internal waves, suggesting that some mechanism involving the diurnal warm layer is responsible for the observed signal. Internal-wave signals in skin temperature very closely resemble temperature signals measured at a depth of about 20 cm, indicating that the observed internal-wave SST signal is not a result of modulation of the cool-skin effect. Numerical experiments using a one-dimensional upper ocean model support the notion that internal-wave heaving of the warm-layer base can produce alternating bands of relatively warm and cool SST through the combined effects of surface heating and modulation of wind-driven vertical shear.
    Description: We gratefully acknowledge funding for this research from the Office of Naval Research through the CBLAST Departmental Research Initiative (grants N00014-01-1-0029, N00014-05-10090, N00014-01-1-0081, N00014-04-1-0110, N00014-05-1-0036, N00014-01-1-0080) and the Secretary of the Navy/Chief of Naval Operations Chair (grant N00014-99-1-0090).
    Keywords: Internal waves ; Upper-ocean processes
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Article
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  • 2
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    Stratus 9/VOCALS ninth setting of the Stratus Ocean Reference Station & VOCALS Regional Experiment (2009)
    Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: The Ocean Reference Station at 20°S, 85°W under the stratus clouds west of northern Chile is being maintained to provide ongoing climate-quality records of surface meteorology; air-sea fluxes of heat, freshwater, and momentum; and of upper ocean temperature, salinity, and velocity variability. The Stratus Ocean Reference Station (ORS Stratus) is supported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Climate Observation Program. It is recovered and redeployed annually, with cruises that have come between October and December. During the 2008 cruise on the NOAA ship Ronald H. Brown to the ORS Stratus site, the primary activities were recovery of the Stratus 8 WHOI surface mooring that had been deployed in October 2007, deployment of a new (Stratus 9) WHOI surface mooring at that site; in-situ calibration of the buoy meteorological sensors by comparison with instrumentation put on board by staff of the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL); and observations of the stratus clouds and lower atmosphere by NOAA ESRL. A buoy for the Pacific tsunami warning system was also serviced in collaboration with the Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the Chilean Navy (SHOA). The DART (Deep-Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami) carries IMET sensors and subsurface oceanographic instruments. A DART II buoy was deployed north of the STRATUS buoy, by personnel from the National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) Argo floats and drifters were launched, and CTD casts carried out during the cruise. The ORS Stratus buoys are equipped with two Improved Meteorological (IMET) systems, which provide surface wind speed and direction, air temperature, relative humidity, barometric pressure, incoming shortwave radiation, incoming longwave radiation, precipitation rate, and sea surface temperature. Additionally, the Stratus 8 buoy received a partial CO2 detector from the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL). IMET data are made available in near real time using satellite telemetry. The mooring line carries instruments to measure ocean salinity, temperature, and currents. The ESRL instrumentation used during the 2008 cruise included cloud radar, radiosonde balloons, and sensors for mean and turbulent surface meteorology. Finally, the cruise hosted a teacher participating in NOAA’s Teacher at Sea Program.
    Description: Funding was provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration under Grant No. NA17RJ1223 for the Cooperative Institute for Climate and Ocean Research (CICOR).
    Keywords: Ronald H. Brown (Ship) Cruise RB08-06 ; Marine meteorology ; Oceanography
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Technical Report
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  • 3
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    Air-sea CO2 exchange in the equatorial Pacific (2010)
    American Geophysical Union
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © American Geophysical Union, 2004. This article is posted here by permission of American Geophysical Union for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Geophysical Research 109 (2004): C08S02, doi:10.1029/2003JC002256.
    Description: GasEx-2001, a 15-day air-sea carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange study conducted in the equatorial Pacific, used a combination of ships, buoys, and drifters equipped with ocean and atmospheric sensors to assess variability and surface mechanisms controlling air-sea CO2 fluxes. Direct covariance and profile method air-sea CO2 fluxes were measured together with the surface ocean and marine boundary layer processes. The study took place in February 2001 near 125°W, 3°S in a region of high CO2. The diurnal variation in the air-sea CO2 difference was 2.5%, driven predominantly by temperature effects on surface solubility. The wind speed was 6.0 ± 1.3 m s−1, and the atmospheric boundary layer was unstable with conditions over the range −1 〈 z/L 〈 0. Diurnal heat fluxes generated daytime surface ocean stratification and subsequent large nighttime buoyancy fluxes. The average CO2 flux from the ocean to the atmosphere was determined to be 3.9 mol m−2 yr−1, with nighttime CO2 fluxes increasing by 40% over daytime values because of a strong nighttime increase in (vertical) convective velocities. The 15 days of air-sea flux measurements taken during GasEx-2001 demonstrate some of the systematic environmental trends of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. The fact that other physical processes, in addition to wind, were observed to control the rate of CO2 transfer from the ocean to the atmosphere indicates that these processes need to be taken into account in local and global biogeochemical models. These local processes can vary on regional and global scales. The GasEx-2001 results show a weak wind dependence but a strong variability in processes governed by the diurnal heating cycle. This implies that any changes in the incident radiation, including atmospheric cloud dynamics, phytoplankton biomass, and surface ocean stratification may have significant feedbacks on the amount and variability of air-sea gas exchange. This is in sharp contrast with previous field studies of air-sea gas exchange, which showed that wind was the dominating forcing function. The results suggest that gas transfer parameterizations that rely solely on wind will be insufficient for regions with low to intermediate winds and strong insolation.
    Description: This work was performed with the support of the National Science Foundation Grant OCE-9986724 and the NOAA Global Carbon Cycle Program Grants NA06GP048, NA17RJ1223, and NA87RJ0445 in the Office of Global Programs.
    Keywords: Air-sea carbon dioxide fluxes ; Equatorial Pacific ; Direct covariance technique ; Profile flux technique ; Diurnal surface layer
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Article
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  • 4
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    Sea-to-air fluxes from measurements of the atmospheric gradient of dimethylsulfide and comparison with simultaneous relaxed eddy accumulation measurements (2010)
    American Geophysical Union
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © American Geophysical Union, 2004. This article is posted here by permission of American Geophysical Union for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Geophysical Research 109 (2004): C01026, doi:10.1029/2002JC001617.
    Description: We measured vertical profiles of dimethylsulfide (DMS) in the atmospheric marine boundary layer from R/P FLIP during the 2000 FAIRS cruise. Applying Monin-Obukhov similarity theory to the DMS gradients and simultaneous micrometeorological data, we calculated sea-to-air DMS fluxes for 34 profiles. From the fluxes and measured seawater DMS concentrations, we calculated the waterside gas transfer velocity, kw. Gas transfer velocities from the gradient flux approach are within the range of previous commonly used parameterizations of kw as a function of wind speed but are a factor of 2 smaller than simultaneous determinations of transfer velocity using the relaxed eddy accumulation technique. This is the first field comparison of these different techniques for measuring DMS flux from the ocean; the accuracy of the techniques and possible reasons for the discrepancy are discussed.
    Description: This work was supported in part by funds from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, NSF grant ATM-0120569, ONR grant N00014-00-1-0403, and NOAA CICOR grant NA87RJ0445.
    Keywords: Air-sea exchange ; Gas transfer ; Sulfur emissions
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Article
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  • 5
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    Environmental turbulent mixing controls on air-water gas exchange in marine and aquatic systems (2010)
    American Geophysical Union
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © American Geophysical Union, 2007. This article is posted here by permission of American Geophysical Union for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Geophysical Research Letters 34 (2007): L10601, doi:10.1029/2006GL028790.
    Description: Air-water gas transfer influences CO2 and other climatically important trace gas fluxes on regional and global scales, yet the magnitude of the transfer is not well known. Widely used models of gas exchange rates are based on empirical relationships linked to wind speed, even though physical processes other than wind are known to play important roles. Here the first field investigations are described supporting a new mechanistic model based on surface water turbulence that predicts gas exchange for a range of aquatic and marine processes. Findings indicate that the gas transfer rate varies linearly with the turbulent dissipation rate to the inline equation power in a range of systems with different types of forcing - in the coastal ocean, in a macro-tidal river estuary, in a large tidal freshwater river, and in a model (i.e., artificial) ocean. These results have important implications for understanding carbon cycling.
    Description: This research was performed and the manuscript prepared with support from: the National Science Foundation (OCE-03-27256, OCE-05-26677, ATM 01-20569, and DEB-05-32075), the Office of Naval Research Young Investigator Program (N00014-04-1-0621), the Hudson River Foundation (010/02A), NOAA (NA03OAR4320179), the Marie Curie Training Site Fellowship (HPMFCT- 2002-01865), the NERC (NER/B/S/2003/00844), the David and Lucille Packard Foundation, and the LDEO Climate Center.
    Keywords: Air-sea gas exchange ; Turbulent dissipation rate ; Carbon
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Article
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  • 6
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    Rain-induced turbulence and air-sea gas transfer (2010)
    American Geophysical Union
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © American Geophysical Union, 2009. This article is posted here by permission of American Geophysical Union for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (2009): C07009, doi:10.1029/2008JC005008.
    Description: Results from a rain and gas exchange experiment (Bio2 RainX III) at the Biosphere 2 Center demonstrate that turbulence controls the enhancement of the air-sea gas transfer rate (or velocity) k during rainfall, even though profiles of the turbulent dissipation rate ɛ are strongly influenced by near-surface stratification. The gas transfer rate scales with ɛ inline equation for a range of rain rates with broad drop size distributions. The hydrodynamic measurements elucidate the mechanisms responsible for the rain-enhanced k results using SF6 tracer evasion and active controlled flux technique. High-resolution k and turbulence results highlight the causal relationship between rainfall, turbulence, stratification, and air-sea gas exchange. Profiles of ɛ beneath the air-sea interface during rainfall, measured for the first time during a gas exchange experiment, yielded discrete values as high as 10−2 W kg−1. Stratification modifies and traps the turbulence near the surface, affecting the enhancement of the transfer velocity and also diminishing the vertical mixing of mass transported to the air-water interface. Although the kinetic energy flux is an integral measure of the turbulent input to the system during rain events, ɛ is the most robust response to all the modifications and transformations to the turbulent state that follows. The Craig-Banner turbulence model, modified for rain instead of breaking wave turbulence, successfully predicts the near-surface dissipation profile at the onset of the rain event before stratification plays a dominant role. This result is important for predictive modeling of k as it allows inferring the surface value of ɛ fundamental to gas transfer.
    Description: This work was funded by a generous grant from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation and the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Climate Center. Additional funding was provided by the National Science Foundation (OCE-05-26677) and the Office of Naval Research Young Investigator Program (N00014-04-1-0621).
    Keywords: Turbulence ; Rain ; Gas transfer
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 7
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    Variations in ocean surface temperature due to near-surface flow : straining the cool skin layer (2010)
    American Meteorological Society
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © American Meteorological Society, 2009. This article is posted here by permission of American Meteorological Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Physical Oceanography 39 (2009): 2685-2710, doi:10.1175/2009JPO3980.1.
    Description: The aqueous thermal boundary layer near to the ocean surface, or skin layer, has thickness O(1 mm) and plays an important role in controlling the exchange of heat between the atmosphere and the ocean. Theoretical arguments and experimental measurements are used to investigate the dynamics of the skin layer under the influence of an upwelling flow, which is imposed in addition to free convection below a cooled water surface. Previous theories of straining flow in the skin layer are considered and a simple extension of a surface straining model is posed to describe the combination of turbulence and an upwelling flow. An additional theory is also proposed, conceptually based on the buoyancy-driven instability of a laminar straining flow cooled from above. In all three theories considered two distinct regimes are observed for different values of the Péclet number, which characterizes the ratio of advection to diffusion within the skin layer. For large Péclet numbers, the upwelling flow dominates and increases the free surface temperature, or skin temperature, to follow the scaling expected for a laminar straining flow. For small Péclet numbers, it is shown that any flow that is steady or varies over long time scales produces only a small change in skin temperature by direct straining of the skin layer. Experimental measurements demonstrate that a strong upwelling flow increases the skin temperature and suggest that the mean change in skin temperature with Péclet number is consistent with the theoretical trends for large Péclet number flow. However, all of the models considered consistently underpredict the measured skin temperature, both with and without an upwelling flow, possibly a result of surfactant effects not included in the models.
    Description: The work was initiated during the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Program, where AJW was supported by a fellowship of the program. CC was supported by NSF Grant OCE-82633900. JTF was supported in part by The Penzance Endowed Fund in Support of Assistant Scientists. CJZ was supported by NSF Grant OCE-0425395 and the Office of Naval Research Young Investigator Program Grant N00014-04-1-0621. Additional funding for this research came from the U.S. Office of Naval Research through the Coupled Boundary Layer Air-Sea Transfer Departmental Research Initiative (Grants N00014-05-10090 and N00014-05-1-0036).
    Keywords: Sea/ocean surface ; Sea surface temperature ; Surface layer ; Heat budgets ; Model comparison
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Article
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  • 8
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    Air-Sea trace gas fluxes: direct and indirect measurements (2023)
    Frontiers Media
    Details
    Publication Date: 2023-02-21
    Description: © The Author(s), 2022. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Fairall, C. W. W., Yang, M., Brumer, S. E. E., Blomquist, B. W. W., Edson, J. B. B., Zappa, C. J. J., Bariteau, L., Pezoa, S., Bell, T. G. G., & Saltzman, E. S. S. Air-Sea trace gas fluxes: direct and indirect measurements. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9, (2022): 826606, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.826606.
    Description: The past decade has seen significant technological advance in the observation of trace gas fluxes over the open ocean, most notably CO2, but also an impressive list of other gases. Here we will emphasize flux observations from the air-side of the interface including both turbulent covariance (direct) and surface-layer similarity-based (indirect) bulk transfer velocity methods. Most applications of direct covariance observations have been from ships but recently work has intensified on buoy-based implementation. The principal use of direct methods is to quantify empirical coefficients in bulk estimates of the gas transfer velocity. Advances in direct measurements and some recent field programs that capture a considerable range of conditions with wind speeds exceeding 20 ms-1 are discussed. We use coincident direct flux measurements of CO2 and dimethylsulfide (DMS) to infer the scaling of interfacial viscous and bubble-mediated (whitecap driven) gas transfer mechanisms. This analysis suggests modest chemical enhancement of CO2 flux at low wind speed. We include some updates to the theoretical structure of bulk parameterizations (including chemical enhancement) as framed in the COAREG gas transfer algorithm.
    Description: This work, and the contributions of MY and TB, is supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council’s ORCHESTRA (Grant No. NE/N018095/1) and PICCOLO (Grant No. NE/P021409/1) projects, and by the European Space Agency’s AMT4OceanSatFlux project (Grant No. 4000125730/18/NL/FF/gp). CF and BB are funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing program (http://data.crossref.org/fundingdata/funder/10.13039/100018302). CZ was funded by the National Science Foundation (CJZ: OCE-2049579, Grants OCE-1537890 and OCE-1923935). Funding for HiWinGS was provided by the US National Science Foundation grant AGS-1036062. The Knorr-11 and SOAP campaigns were supported by the NSF Atmospheric Chemistry Program (Grant No. ATM-0426314, AGS-08568, -0851472, -0851407 and -1143709).
    Keywords: Gas transfer velocity ; Chemical enhancement ; Bubble mediated transfer ; COARE gas flux parameterization ; Dimethylsufide (DMS) ; Cardon dioxide (CO2) ; Bulk algorithm ; Direct observation
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 9
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    Parsing the kinetic energy budget of the ocean surface mixed layer (2022)
    American Geophysical Union
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-10-20
    Description: © The Author(s), 2022. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Zippel, S. F., Farrar, J. T., Zappa, C. J., & Plueddemann, A. J. Parsing the kinetic energy budget of the ocean surface mixed layer. Geophysical Research Letters, 49(2), (2022): 2021GL095920, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL095920.
    Description: The total rate of work done on the ocean by the wind is of considerable interest for understanding global energy balances, as the energy from the wind drives ocean currents, grows surface waves, and forces vertical mixing. A large but unknown fraction of this atmospheric energy is dissipated by turbulence in the upper ocean. The focus of this work is twofold. First, we describe a framework for evaluating the vertically integrated turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) equation using measurable quantities from a surface mooring, showing the connection to the atmospheric, mean oceanic, and wave energy. Second, we use this framework to evaluate turbulent energetics in the mixed layer using 10 months of mooring data. This evaluation is made possible by recent advances in estimating TKE dissipation rates from long-enduring moorings. We find that surface fluxes are balanced by TKE dissipation rates in the mixed layer to within a factor of two.
    Description: This work was funded by NSF Award No. 2023 020, and by NASA as part of the Salinity Processes in the Upper Ocean Regional Study (SPURS), supporting field work for SPURS-1 (NASA Grant No. NNX11AE84G), and for analysis (NASA Grant No. 80NSSC18K1494), and as part of SASSIE (NASA Grant No. 80NSSC21K0832). This work was also funded by NSF through Grant Award Nos. 1756 839, 2049546, and by ONR through Grant N000141712880 (MISO-BoB).
    Keywords: Air/sea interaction ; Turbulence ; Mixed layer ; Wind work ; Boundary layer ; Waves
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 10
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    Constraining Southern Ocean air-sea-ice fluxes through enhanced observations (2019)
    Frontiers Media
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-10-26
    Description: © The Author(s), 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in [citation], doi:[doi]. Swart, S., Gille, S. T., Delille, B., Josey, S., Mazloff, M., Newman, L., Thompson, A. F., Thomson, J., Ward, B., du Plessis, M. D., Kent, E. C., Girton, J., Gregor, L., Heil, P., Hyder, P., Pezzi, L. P., de Souza, R. B., Tamsitt, V., Weller, R. A., & Zappa, C. J. Constraining Southern Ocean air-sea-ice fluxes through enhanced observations. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6, (2019): 421, doi:10.3389/fmars.2019.00421.
    Description: Air-sea and air-sea-ice fluxes in the Southern Ocean play a critical role in global climate through their impact on the overturning circulation and oceanic heat and carbon uptake. The challenging conditions in the Southern Ocean have led to sparse spatial and temporal coverage of observations. This has led to a “knowledge gap” that increases uncertainty in atmosphere and ocean dynamics and boundary-layer thermodynamic processes, impeding improvements in weather and climate models. Improvements will require both process-based research to understand the mechanisms governing air-sea exchange and a significant expansion of the observing system. This will improve flux parameterizations and reduce uncertainty associated with bulk formulae and satellite observations. Improved estimates spanning the full Southern Ocean will need to take advantage of ships, surface moorings, and the growing capabilities of autonomous platforms with robust and miniaturized sensors. A key challenge is to identify observing system sampling requirements. This requires models, Observing System Simulation Experiments (OSSEs), and assessments of the specific spatial-temporal accuracy and resolution required for priority science and assessment of observational uncertainties of the mean state and direct flux measurements. Year-round, high-quality, quasi-continuous in situ flux measurements and observations of extreme events are needed to validate, improve and characterize uncertainties in blended reanalysis products and satellite data as well as to improve parameterizations. Building a robust observing system will require community consensus on observational methodologies, observational priorities, and effective strategies for data management and discovery.
    Description: SS was funded by a Wallenberg Academy Fellowship (WAF 2015.0186). EK was funded by the NERC ORCHESTRA Project (NE/N018095/1). LP was funded by the Advanced Studies in Oceanography of Medium and High Latitudes (CAPES 23038.004304/2014-28) and the Research Productivity Program (CNPq 304009/2016-4). BdS was a research associate at the F.R.S-FNRS. PeH was supported by the Australian Antarctic Science Projects 4301 and 4390, and the Australian Government’s Cooperative Research Centres Programme through the Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre and the International Space Science Institute Project 406. SG and MM were funded by National Science Foundation awards OCE-1658001 and PLR-1425989. AT was supported by NASA (NNX15AG42G) and NSF (OCE-1756956).
    Keywords: Air-sea/air-sea-ice fluxes ; Southern Ocean ; Ocean-atmosphere interaction ; Climate ; Ocean-ice interaction
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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