Anmerkung: Intro -- Preface -- About the Editors -- Contents -- PART I Tropical Cyclones and Climate Change -- Construction and Quality of Best Tracks Parameters for Study of Climate Change Impact on Tropical Cyclones over the North Indian -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Characteristics of Best Tracks in Satellite Era -- 2.1 Satellite Observations of CDs -- 2.2 IMD's Use of Weather Satellites for CD Monitoring -- 2.3 Methods Used to Interpret Genesis, Location and Intensity of CDs -- 2.4 Errors in Estimation of Location and Intensity during Satellite Era -- 3. Frequency of CD, CS, SCS and VSCS -- 4. Trends in Frequency in Satellite Era -- 4.1 Trend in Frequency of CD -- 4.2 Trend in Frequency of CS or Higher Intensity Storms -- 4.3 Trend in Frequency of SCS or Higher Intensity Storms -- 4.4 Trend in Frequency of Very Severe Cyclonic Storm (VSCS) or Higher Intensity Storms -- 5. Conclusions -- REFERENCES -- Climate Change and Southern Hemisphere Tropical Cyclones" International Initiative - Progress since the First International Con -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Southern Hemisphere Tropical Cyclone Archive -- 3. Southern Hemisphere Tropical Cyclone Trends -- 4. Historical Cyclone Data Portal -- 5. Future Work - Prospects for Improving Seasonal Prediction of Tropical Cyclones -- 6. Summary -- Acknowledgement -- REFERENCES -- Climate Change in Tropical Cyclones and Monsoon Depressions of North Indian Ocean -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Climate Change in Annual Frequency of TC and MD -- 3. FDO in Cyclones, Equatorial Wind and SST of Indian Ocean -- 4. Decreasing Trend in MD Frequency and Monsoon LLJ -- 5. Climate Change in the Intensity of Cyclones -- 6. Conclusions -- REFERENCES -- Mechanism of the Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclone Frequency Changes due to Global Warming -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Hypothesis -- 3. Model and Experiment -- 4. Global TC Frequency Changes. , 5. Regional TC Frequency Changes -- 6. Indian Ocean TC Frequency Changes -- 7. Discussion -- 8. Conclusions -- Acknowledgement -- REFERENCES -- Recent Research at GFDL on Surface Temperature Trends and Simulations of Tropical Cyclone Activity in the Indian Ocean Region -- 1. Introduction and Overview -- 2. Assessment of Regional Surface Temperature Trends in the Indian Ocean/Southern Asia Region -- Summary -- 3. Simulations of Northern Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclone Activity -- Summary -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- PART II Climatological Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones and Future Projection -- Future Changes in Tropical Cyclone Activity in the North Indian Ocean Projected by the New HighResolution MRI-AGCM -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Models and Experimental Design -- 3. Results -- 3.1 Projected Future Changes in TC Genesis Number -- 3.2 Projected Future Changes in TC Frequency -- 3.3 Mechanisms of Future Changes in TC Genesis Frequency -- 4. Summary -- REFERENCES -- Tropical Cyclone Activity over the Indian Ocean in the Warmer Climate -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Data and Methodology and Discussion -- 3. Results and Discussion -- 3.1 Frequency of Genesis -- 3.2 Area of Genesis of TC -- 3.3 Duration of TC Season over NIO -- 3.4 Energy Metrics of TCs over NIO -- 4. Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- An Analysis of Environmental Dynamical Control of Tropical Cyclone Intensity over the Bay of Bengal during 1981-2010 -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Data -- 3. Effect of Translational Speed on Intensification -- 3.1 Translational Speed (TS) Group and Intensification -- 3.2 Translational Speed and Relative Intensification -- 4. Effect of Vertical Wind Shear on Intensification -- 5. Concluding Remarks -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- Analysis of Cyclone Tracks of North Indian Ocean Using Cluster Analysis -- 1. Introduction. , 2. Pertinent Literature -- 3. Data -- 4. Methodology -- 5. Results -- 5.1 Regression Mixture Models -- 5.2 Properties of the Clusters -- 6. Conclusion and Future Work -- REFERENCES -- Characteristics of Cyclogenesis over the Indian Region during 1891-2011 with Special Emphasis on Bay of Bengal vis-à-vis Arabian -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Data and Methodology -- 3. Inter-decadal Climate Shifts of Frequencies and Intensity of Cyclogenesis during 1891-2011 for Indian Region, BoB and AS Usin -- 4. Intensification Ratio in Indian Region, BoB and AS and Cyclogenesis Capability of AS to BoB and Identification of Their Corre -- 5. Conclusions -- REFERENCES -- PART III Tropical Cyclone Predictability: Status and Plan for Operational Forecasting -- Extended Prediction of North Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclones Using the ECMWF Variable Ensemble Prediction System -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Data and Methods -- 2.1 Model Forecasts -- 2.2 Tropical Cyclone Tracking Scheme -- 3. Results and Discussion -- 3.1 Tropical Cyclone Formation and Pre-genesis Forecasts -- 3.2 Post-genesis Tropical Cyclone Forecasts -- 4. Conclusions -- REFERENCES -- Prospects for Improving the Operational Seasonal Prediction of Tropical Cyclone Activity in the Southern Hemisphere -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Data and Methodology -- 3. Results -- 3.1 Correlation between the Annual Number of TCs and the ENSO Indices -- 3.2 Multiple Regression Models -- 3.3 Statistical-dynamical Model-based Approach for TC Seasonal Prediction -- 4. Discussion and Conclusions -- Acknowledgement -- REFERENCES -- Extended Range Tropical Cyclone Predictions for East Coast of India -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Extended Range Probabilistic Prediction of Tropical Cyclones -- Methodology -- 3. Medium Range Forecasts for Cyclone Genesis Potential and Tracks in South and Central Bay of Bengal (2007-2010). , 3.1 Cyclone Sidr (12th -16th Nov 2007) -- 3.2 Cyclone Nargis (27th April-3rd May 2008) -- 3.3 Cyclone Khai-Muk (13th-16th November 2008) -- 4. Summary and Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- Status and Plans for Operational Tropical Cyclone Forecasting and Warning Systems in the North Indian Ocean Region -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Broad Responsibility of IMD for TC Forecasting and Warning Services (RSMC, 2012) -- 3. Recent Initiatives and Outcomes -- 4. Current Status of Monitoring and Forecasting -- 4.1 Observational Systems for Cyclone Monitoring -- 4.2 Analysis and Forecasting -- 4.3 Decision Making Process -- 5. Early Warning System-Organizational Structure -- 6. Bulletins and Products -- 6.1 Tropical Weather Outlook -- 6.2 Tropical Cyclone Advisories -- 6.3 Tropical Cyclone Advisories for Aviation -- 6.4 Bulletin for India Coast -- 6.5 Wind Forecast for Different Quadrants -- 6.6 User Specific Bulletins -- 7. Conclusions and Future Scope -- REFERENCES -- Advancing Tropical Cyclone Forecasts Using Aircraft Observations -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Flight-level Observations -- 3. Airborne Expendables -- 3.1 GPS Dropwindsondes -- 3.2 Expendable Ocean Probes -- 4. Stepped Frequency Microwave Radiometer (SFMR) -- 5. Airborne Doppler Radar -- 6. Improved Use of Observations-Hurricane Forecast and Improvement Project (HFIP) -- REFERENCES -- Estimation of Centre and Intensity of Tropical Cyclones over the North Indian Ocean Using Microwave Imageries -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Data and Methodology -- 3. Results and Discussion -- 3.1 Comparison of Intensity of CDs -- 3.2 Comparison of Location of Centre of CDs -- 4. Conclusions -- REFERENCES -- Multi-model Ensemble Based Extended Range Forecast of Tropical Cyclogenesis over the North Indian Ocean -- 1. Introduction -- 2 Coupled Models Output Considered for Preparing Multi-model Ensemble Forecast. , 2.1 ECMWF Monthly Forecast System -- 2.2 NCEP's Climate Forecast System -- 2.3 Multi-model Ensemble (MME) Forecast -- 3. MME Forecast of Cyclogenesis during 2011 Post-monsoon Season -- 3.1 Observed Cyclonic Storm during 2011 Post-monsoon Season -- 3.2 MME Outlook of Cyclonic Storm during 2011 Post-monsoon Season -- 4. Summary and Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- PART IV NWP Modelling for Tropical Cyclone Forecasting -- Improvement in Track and Intensity Prediction of Indian Seas Tropical Cyclones with Vortex Assimilation -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Model Description and Numerical Experiments -- 3. Synoptic Situations of Aila and Gonu -- 3.1 Case 1 (Aila) -- 3.2 Case 2 (Gonu) -- 4. Results and Discussion -- 4.1 Improvement in Track Simulation -- 4.2 Improvement in Intensity Prediction -- 5. Conclusions -- Acknowledgement -- REFERENCES -- NWP Forecast Guidance during Phet at Oman Meteorological Service -- 1. Introduction -- 1.1 Historical Tropical Cyclones in Arabian Sea -- 1.2 Tropical Cyclone Phet -- 2. Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) Simulation -- 2.1 Modelling Capabilities at Oman Meteorological Department -- 2.2 Preliminary Results -- 3. Conclusion and Future Work -- REFERENCES -- Impact of Variational Data Assimilation for Simulating Tropical Cyclones over Bay of Bengal Using WRF-ARW -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Numerical Experiments -- 3 Data and Methodology -- 4 Results and Discussion -- 5. Conclusions -- REFERENCES -- Improved Track and Intensity Predictions Using Cyclone Bogusing and Regional Assimilation -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Model Description, Cyclone Bogusing and Experiments -- 3. Summary of Results -- 3.1 Impact on Initial Conditions -- 3.2 Impact on forecast tracks -- 3.3 Impact of DWR Data Assimilation -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- Role of Surface Roughness Length on Simulation of Cyclone Aila -- 1. Introduction. , 2. Data Used and Methodology.

Anmerkung: Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- CONTENTS -- CONTRIBUTORS -- PREFACE -- Section I Introduction -- Chapter 1 Concepts and Methodologies of Environmental Hazards and Disasters -- 1.1. INTRODUCTION -- 1.2. HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS IN AGRICULTURE -- 1.3. BIOPHYSICAL HAZARDS IN AGRICULTURE -- 1.4. SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 2 Indigenous Knowledge for Disaster Solutions in the Hilly State of Mizoram, Northeast India -- 2.1. INTRODUCTION -- 2.2. TRADITIONAL PRACTICES FOR LANDSLIDE PREVENTION -- 2.3. BAMBOO‐BASED HOUSING IN EARTHQUAKE PRONE ZONE -- 2.4. COMMUNITY-BASED EFFORTS TO COMBAT FOREST FIRES -- 2.5. LOCAL WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS IN MIZORAM -- 2.6. CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 3 Urban Risk and Resilience to Climate Change and Natural Hazards: A Perspective from Million‐Plus Cities on the Indian Subcontinent -- 3.1. BACKGROUND -- 3.2. URBAN SYSTEM IN CHANGING CLIMATIC CONDITIONS -- 3.3. URBAN HAZARDS AND RISK -- 3.4. URBAN RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION -- 3.5. CONCLUSION -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 4 The Contribution of Earth Observation in Disaster Prediction, Management, and Mitigation: A Holistic View -- 4.1. INTRODUCTION -- 4.2. EARTH OBSERVATION (EO) FOR NATURAL DISASTER PREDICTION -- 4.3. EARTH OBSERVATION (EO) FOR NATURAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND MITIGATION -- 4.4. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Section II Atmospheric Hazards and Disasters -- Chapter 5 Tropical Cyclones Over the North Indian Ocean in Changing Climate -- 5.1. INTRODUCTION -- 5.2. DATA AND METHODOLOGY -- 5.3. RESULT AND ANALYSIS -- 5.4. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTs -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 6 Simulation of Intensity and Track of Tropical Cyclones Over the Arabian Sea Using the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) Modeling System: with Different Initial Conditions (ICs) -- 6.1. INTRODUCTION. , 6.2. SYNOPTIC CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE TROPICAL CYCLONES -- 6.3. DESCRIPTION OF THE WEATHER RESEARCH AND FORECAST MODEL AND NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTS -- 6.4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION -- 6.5. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 7 Development of a Soft Computing Model from the Reanalyzed Atmospheric Data to Detect Severe Weather Conditions -- 7.1. INTRODUCTION -- 7.2. METHODOLOGY -- 7.3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION -- 7.4. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 8 Lightning, the Global Electric Circuit, and Climate -- 8.1. INTRODUCTION -- 8.2. LIGHTNING DISCHARGES -- 8.3. LIGHTNING DISCHARGES AND THE GLOBAL ELECTRIC CIRCUIT -- 8.4. ATMOSPHERIC DISCHARGES AND CLIMATE -- 8.5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 9 An Exploration of the Panther Mountain Crater Impact Using Spatial Data and GIS Spatial Correlation Analysis Techniques -- 9.1. INTRODUCTION -- 9.2. MATERIALS -- 9.3. METHODOLOGY -- 9.4. RESULTS -- 9.5. DISCUSSION -- 9.6. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Section III Land Hazards and Disasters -- Chapter 10 Satellite Radar Interferometry Processing and Elevation Change Analysis for Geoenvironmental Hazard Assessment -- 10.1. INTRODUCTION -- 10.2. STUDY AREA -- 10.3. GEOENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING -- 10.4. RADAR INTERFEROMETRY -- 10.5. MULTITEMPORAL ELEVATIONS CHANGE ANALYSIS -- 10.6 CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 11 Assessing the Use of Sentinel-2 in Burnt Area Cartography: Findings from a Case Study in Spain -- 11.1. INTRODUCTION -- 11.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS -- 11.3. RESULTS -- 11.4. DISCUSSION -- 11.5. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 12 Assimilating SEVIRI Satellite Observation into the Name-III Dispersion Model to Improve Volcanic Ash Forecast -- 12.1. INTRODUCTION -- 12.2. NAME DISPERSION MODEL -- 12.3. DATA AND METHODOLOGY. , 12.4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS -- 12.5. CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 13 Geoinformation Technology for Drought Assessment -- 13.1. INTRODUCTION -- 13.2. STUDY AREA -- 13.3. MATERIALS AND METHODS -- 13.4. METHODOLOGY -- 13.5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS -- 13.6. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 14 Introduction to Landslides -- 14.1. INTRODUCTION -- 14.2. MORPHOLOGY OF LANDSLIDES -- 14.3. SLOPE FAILURE -- 14.4. CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES -- 14.5. TYPES OF LANDSLIDES -- 14.6. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDSLIDES -- 14.7. IDENTIFICATION OF LANDSLIDES -- 14.8. GROUND OBSERVATION -- 14.9. MEASUREMENT OF LANDSLIDES -- 14.10. LANDSLIDE HAZARD ZONATION MAPPING -- 14.11. LANDSLIDE HAZARD MITIGATION -- 14.12. SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 15 Probabilistic Landslide Hazard Assessment using Statistical Information Value (SIV) and GIS Techniques: A Case Study of Himachal Pradesh, India -- 15.1. INTRODUCTION -- 15.2. STATISTICAL INFORMATION VALUE (SIV) MODEL -- 15.3. LANDSLIDE CONDITIONING FACTORS -- 15.4. METHODOLOGY -- 15.5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION -- 15.6. CONCLUSION -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 16 One-Dimensional Hydrodynamic Modeling of the River Tapi: The 2006 Flood, Surat, India -- 16.1. INTRODUCTION -- 16.2. STUDY AREA AND DATA USED -- 16.3. METHODOLOGIES -- 16.4. RESULTS -- 16.5. VALIDATION OF SIMULATED FLOW -- 16.6. SENSITIVITY OF STAGE RELATION WITH TIDAL CONDITION -- 16.7. RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FLOOD PREVENTION -- 16.8. DISCUSSIONS -- 16.9. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTs -- REFERENCES -- Section IV Ocean Hazards and Disasters -- Chapter 17 Tropical Cyclone-Induced Storm Surges and Wind Waves in the Bay of Bengal -- 17.1. INTRODUCTION -- 17.2. METHODOLOGY -- 17.3. TROPICAL CYCLONE ACTIVITY OVER THE NORTH INDIAN OCEAN -- 17.4. STUDIES ON TROPICAL CYCLONE-INDUCED STORM SURGES FOR THE BAY OF BENGAL. , 17.5. CHARACTERISTICS OF OCEAN WIND WAVES AND THEIR ROLE DURING EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS -- 17.6. COUPLED WAVE‐HYDRODYNAMIC MODELS -- 17.7 STORM SURGE AND INUNDATION MODELING FOR CYCLONE THANE -- 17.8. STORM SURGE AND INUNDATION MODELING FOR CYCLONE AILA -- 17.9. COUPLED MODELING SYSTEM FOR CYCLONE PHAILIN -- 17.10. COUPLED MODELING SYSTEM FOR CYCLONE HUDHUD -- 17.11. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 18 Space-Based Measurement of Rainfall Over India and Nearby Oceans Using Remote Sensing Application -- 18.1. INTRODUCTION -- 18.2. RAINFALL ESTIMATION USING INFRARED OBSERVATIONS -- 18.3. RAINFALL ESTIMATION USING MICROWAVE OBSERVATIONS -- 18.4. RAINFALL ESTIMATION USING MERGED IR AND MICROWAVE OBSERVATIONS -- 18.5. CONCLUSION -- ACKNOWLEDGMENT -- REFERENCES -- Chapter 19 Modeling Tsunami Attenuation and Impacts on Coastal Communities -- 19.1. INTRODUCTION -- 19.2. MODELING TSUNAMIS -- 19.3. TSUNAMI DEFENSE STRUCTURES -- 19.4. TSUNAMI-BORNE DEBRIS -- 19.5. INFRASTRUCTURE -- 19.6. SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- INDEX -- EULA.

Anmerkung: Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright -- Preface -- Contents -- Part 1: State-of-the-art Observations for Advancing TC Research -- 1: Advancing the Understanding and Prediction of Tropical Cyclones Using Aircraft Observations -- 1. Introduction -- 2. P-3 Aircraft -- 3. Flight-level Observations -- 4. Airborne Expendables -- a. GPS Dropwindsondes -- b. Expendable Ocean Probes -- 5. Stepped Frequency Microwave Radiometer (SFMR) -- 6. Airborne Doppler Radar -- 7. Improved Use of Observations: Hurricane Forecast and Improvement Programme (HFIP) -- a. Improving Initialization -- b. Improved Model Evaluation -- 8. Future Observing Technologies -- 9. Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- 2: Use of Satellite Observations in Tropical Cyclone Studies -- 1. Overview -- 2. Visible/Infrared Sensors -- 3. Microwave Sensors -- 3.1 Passive Microwave Sensors -- 3.2 Active Microwave Sensors -- 3.3 Microwave Sounders -- 4. Some Interesting Applications of Satellite Data in Tropical Cyclone Research -- 4.1a Prediction of Tropical Cyclogenesis Based on Infrared Images -- 4.1b Prediction of Tropical Cyclogenesis Using Scatterometer Observations -- 4.2 Initialization of Cyclonic Vortex in NWP Models -- 4.3 Assimilation of Satellite Observations of Atmospheric Ozone in NWP Models -- REFERENCES -- Part 2: Advances in Numerical Weather Predictions for Tropical Cyclones -- 3: Overview of the NOAA/NCEP Operational Hurricane Weather Research and Forecast (HWRF) Modelling System -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Atmospheric Model Components of HWRF -- 2.1 Dynamic Core and Model Equations -- 2.2 Moving Nest Algorithm -- 2.3 Terrain Treatment and Topography -- 2.4 Fine Grid Initialization and Mass Balancing -- 2.5 Lateral Boundary Conditions -- 2.6 Nest-to-Parent Feedback -- 3. HWRF Vortex Initialization and Relocation -- 3.1 HWRF Cycling System. , 3.2 Bogus Vortex Used to Correct Weak Storms -- 3.3 Improvement of Vortex Representation: Storm Size Correction -- 3.4 Improvement of Vortex Representation: Storm Intensity Correction -- 4. HWRF Data Assimilation System (HDAS) -- 4.1 Hybrid EnKF-3DVAR Algorithm -- 5. Physics in the HWRF Model -- 5.1 Surface Layer Physics Parameterization -- 5.2 Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL) Parameterization -- 5.3 Land Surface Model: The GFDL Slab Model -- 5.4 Radiation Parameterization: GFDL Radiation Scheme -- 5.5 Cumulus Parameterization: The Simplified Arakawa-Schubert (SAS) Scheme -- 5.6 Microphysics Parameterization: The Ferrier Microphysics Scheme -- 6. Performance of the Operational HWRF -- 6.1 HWRF Model Performance for the North Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Basins -- 6.2 HWRF Model Performance for the North Western Pacific Basin -- 6.3 HWRF Model Performance for the North Indian Ocean Basin -- 7. Summary and Future Work -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- 4: Physical Processes in Tropical Cyclone Models -- 1. An Overview of Physical Processes Required to be Included in TC Models -- 1.1 Importance of Cloud Parameterization in TC Models -- 1.2 Cloud Microphysics Parameterization -- 1.3 General Concepts in Sub-Grid Cloud Parameterization -- 1.4 Other Physical Processes in TC Models -- 2. Sensitivity of Simulated TC Intensification to Parameterized Physical Processes -- 2.1 Experimental Design -- 2.2 Metrics for Comparing the Sensitivity Experiments -- 2.3 Results -- 3. Summary and Discussion -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- 5: Sub-Grid Vertical Turbulent Mixing in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer -- 1. Parameterization of Sub-Grid Vertical Turbulent Mixing -- 1.1 Description of Sub-Grid Motions -- 1.2 Grid-resolved Variables and Sub-Grid Turbulent Fluxes -- 1.3 A Diagnostic Local Mixing Parameterization -- 1.4 Prognostic Mixing Parameterizations. , 1.5 Non-Local Mixing Parameterizations -- 1.6 Summary and Final Remarks -- 2. A Non-sigular Realization of the 1.5-Order TKE Scheme with Prognostic Mixing Length -- 2.1 The Vertical Turbulent Mixing Scheme -- 2.2 The Closure Constants of the η2l Equation -- 2.3 Constraints on the Length Scale -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- 6: Air-Sea Turbulent Flux Parameterizations in Tropical Cyclone Models -- 1. An Overview of Physical Processes near the Air-Sea Interface -- 1.1 Parameterizations of Air-Sea Fluxes under High Wind Conditions -- 1.2 Sea Surface Roughness Parameterization -- 1.3 The Parameterization of Roughness Lengths for Sensible and Latent Heat Fluxes -- 1.4 The Spray Contribution to Sensible and Latent Heat Fluxes from the Ocean -- 2. Parameterizations of Sea-Spray Impact on the Air-Sea Momentum and Heat Fluxes -- 2.1 Dynamical and Thermal Effect of Sea Spray -- 2.2 Parameterization of the Sea-spray Effect on the Heat Fluxes -- 2.3 Parameterization of the Sea-spray Effect on the Momentum Flux -- 2.4 The Physics of the Parameterized Sea-spray Effect -- 2.5 Sensitivity of an NWP Model to the Parameterizations -- 3. Summary and Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- 7: Present State of Knowledge of Electrification and Lightning within Tropical Cyclones and Their Relationships to Microphysics and Storm Intensity -- 1. Lightning Morphology within Tropical Cyclones and Relationships with Storm Intensity -- 2. Lightning, Convection and Microphysics within Tropical Cyclones -- 3. Modelling of Tropical Cyclone Electrification -- REFERENCES -- 8: The Role of Land Surface Processes on Tropical Cyclones: Introduction to Land Surface Models -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Surface Energy Budget -- 2.1 Examples of Energy Balance over Different Landscapes -- 3. Boundary Layer -- 4. Air-surface Exchange -- 5. Land Surface Models. , 6. Challenges in Land Surface Modelling -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- 9: The Role of Land Surface Processes on Extreme Weather Events: Land Data Assimilation System -- 1. Land Surface and PBL Processes -- 2. Improving Land State Representation Using Land Data Assimilation System -- 3. Impact of Land Data on Monsoon Depressions and Numerical Experiments -- 4. Impact of Improved Land Fields on Mesoscale Convection over Indian Region -- 5. Future Directions -- 6. Summary -- Acknowledgements -- REFERENCES -- 10: Ocean Component of the HWRF Coupled Model and Model Evaluation -- 1. Introduction -- 2. History of Ocean Component of Coupled HWRF Model -- 2.1 Configuration of POM-TC -- 2.2 POM-TC Initialization -- 2.3 POM-TC Coupling to the HWRF Atmosphere (2007-2013 HWRF Operational Implementation) -- 3. Results -- 3.1 Retrospective 2013 Version HWRF-POM-TC Model Forecast Analysis -- 3.2 Retrospective 2013 Version HWRF-POM-TC Model Ocean Analysis -- 3.3 Hurricane Earl -- 3.4 Hurricane Igor -- 3.5 Hurricane Irene -- 3.6 Subsurface Ocean Temperature Analysis (Hurricane Irene) -- 3.7 AXBT Summary -- 4. Summary -- Annexure 1: Description of MPIPOM-TC -- Annexure 2: Model Initialization and Configuration (MPIPOM-TC) -- Annexure 3: Model Evaluation (MPIPOM-TC) -- REFERENCES -- Part 3: Advanced Assimilation and Vortex Initialization Techniques -- 11: Introduction to Data Assimilation Techniques and Ensemble Kalman Filter -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Purpose of Data Assimilation -- 3. Quality Control (QC) of Meteorological Observations -- 4. Definition and Notations Used in Data Assimilation -- 5. Minimization Algorithms -- 5.1 Cost Function -- 5.2 Newton Algorithm -- 5.3 Quasi-Newton Algorithm -- 6. Different Methods of Assimilation -- 6.1 The Optimal Least-Squares Estimator -- 6.2 Variational Approach-3DVAR -- 6.3 Variational Approach-4DVAR. , 6.4 Kalman Filter (KF) -- 6.5 Ensemble KF (EnKF) -- REFERENCES -- 12: Data Assimilation and Predictability of Tropical Cyclones -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Why Lack of Progress in Intensity Forecast? -- 3. Ensemble Performance and Predictability -- 3.1 EnKF for Limited-area Models: Assimilation of Doppler Radar Observations -- 3.2 Hurricane Initialization and Prediction Using Doppler Radar Observation with EnKF -- 3.3 Summary on Performance of the EnKF Assimilation of Inner-core Airborne Doppler Radar Observations (Zhang et al., 2011) -- 3.4 Hurricane Predictability under Different Shear(Zhang and Tao, 2013) -- 4. Conclusions -- REFERENCES -- 13: Data Assimilation: Comparison and Hybridization between Ensemble and Variational Methods -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Basic Algorithms of 3DVAR, 4DVAR and EnKF -- 2.1 Variational Algorithms -- 2.2 EnKF Algorithm -- 3. Advantages and Limitations of Different Data Assimilation Methods -- 3.1 Advantages and Limitations of Variational Assimilation System -- 3.2 Advantages and Limitations of Ensemble Assimilation System -- 4. Inter-comparison of 3DVAR, 4DVAR and EnKF -- 4.1 Experimental Design -- 4.2 Results and Discussion -- 5. Coupling and Hybrid of EnKF with 3DVAR/4DVAR -- 5.1 Hybrid Formulation within WRF-Var -- 5.2 Comparison of Different Assimilation Methods -- Conclusions -- REFERENCES -- Part 4: Monitoring and Prediction of Tropical Cyclones -- 14: Operational ACCESS-TC: Vortex Specification, 4DVAR Initialization, Verification and Structure Diagnostics -- 1. Introduction -- 2. System Configuration -- 3. Vortex Specification and Validation -- 4. 4DVAR Initialization -- 5. Verification -- 6. Illustrative Example of Forecast Vortex Structure Change: TC Yasi -- 7. Summary and Future Plans -- REFERENCES -- 15: Physical Initialization in Tropical Cyclone Forecasting -- 1. Introduction -- 1.1 Yanai Fluxes. , 1.2 Reverse Similarity Theory.