Description: Most molluscs possess shells, constructed from a vast array of microstructures and architectures. The fully formed shell is composed of calcite or aragonite. These CaCO3 crystals form complex biocomposites with proteins, which although typically less than 5% of total shell mass, play significant roles in determining shell microstructure. Despite much research effort, large knowledge gaps remain in how molluscs construct and maintain their shells, and how they produce such a great diversity of forms. Here we synthesize results on how shell shape, microstructure, composition and organic content vary among, and within, species in response to numerous biotic and abiotic factors. At the local level, temperature, food supply and predation cues significantly affect shell morphology, whilst salinity has a much stronger influence across latitudes. Moreover, we emphasize how advances in genomic technologies [e.g. restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-Seq) and epigenetics] allow detailed examinations of whether morphological changes result from phenotypic plasticity or genetic adaptation, or a combination of these. RAD-Seq has already identified single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with temperature and aquaculture practices, whilst epigenetic processes have been shown significantly to modify shell construction to local conditions in, for example, Antarctica and New Zealand. We also synthesize results on the costs of shell construction and explore how these affect energetic trade-offs in animal metabolism. The cellular costs are still debated, with CaCO3 precipitation estimates ranging from 1–2 J/mg to 17–55 J/mg depending on experimental and environmental conditions. However, organic components are more expensive (~29 J/mg) and recent data indicate transmembrane calcium ion transporters can involve considerable costs. This review emphasizes the role that molecular analyses have played in demonstrating multiple evolutionary origins of biomineralization genes. Although these are characterized by lineage-specific proteins and unique combinations of co-opted genes, a small set of protein domains have been identified as a conserved biomineralization tool box. We further highlight the use of sequence data sets in providing candidate genes for in situ localization and protein function studies. The former has elucidated gene expression modularity in mantle tissue, improving understanding of the diversity of shell morphology synthesis. RNA interference (RNAi) and clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats - CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) experiments have provided proof of concept for use in the functional investigation of mollusc gene sequences, showing for example that Pif (aragonite-binding) protein plays a significant role in structured nacre crystal growth and that the Lsdia1 gene sets shell chirality in Lymnaea stagnalis. Much research has focused on the impacts of ocean acidification on molluscs. Initial studies were predominantly pessimistic for future molluscan biodiversity. However, more sophisticated experiments incorporating selective breeding and multiple generations are identifying subtle effects and that variability within mollusc genomes has potential for adaption to future conditions. Furthermore, we highlight recent historical studies based on museum collections that demonstrate a greater resilience of molluscs to climate change compared with experimental data. The future of mollusc research lies not solely with ecological investigations into biodiversity, and this review synthesizes knowledge across disciplines to understand biomineralization. It spans research ranging from evolution and development, through predictions of biodiversity prospects and future-proofing of aquaculture to identifying new biomimetic opportunities and societal benefits from recycling shell products.

Description: Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data DOI: 10.1021/acs.jced.7b01026

Description: Marine renewable energy projects (MREs) are supported by mandatory environmental monitoring programmes due to assumed environmental impacts. These programmes concentrate on the resultant effects of single industrial projects onto biological and physical components contributing to the local ecosystem structure. To date, impact assessments at the ecosystem functioning level (e.g. trophic interactions, nutrient cycling) are largely lacking. This critical knowledge gap hampers our ability to answering the “so what” question when assessing environmental impacts, i.e. whether the observed impacts are classified as good, bad or neutral, and/or acceptable or unacceptable. When assessing MREs, there is a fundamental need to focus on ecosystem functioning at relevant spatial and temporal scales to properly understand ecological impacts and its consequences. Here, we make a science-based plea for an increased investment in large scale impact assessment of MREs focused on ecosystem functioning. This presentation will cover a selection of examples from MRE monitoring programmes, where the current knowledge has limited conclusions on the “so what” question. Further, applications will demonstrate how a proposed ecosystem functioning approach at an appropriate spatial and temporal scale could advance our current assessment. These examples will illustrate the need to expand the current level of MRE monitoring beyond that of community structure and of individual industrial projects. This work will advance and strengthen collaborative MRE monitoring strategies, facilitating scientists, developers and regulators to answer the much needed “so what” question when undertaking environmental assessments, and reassuring stakeholders with high confidence over these assessments.

Description: Offshore marine renewables energy developments (MREDs), particularly in the light of extensive offshore wind farm development in shallow shelf seas, are expected to affect the structure and functioning of marine ecosystems. Several activities linked to the installation and operation of MREDs each have their differential impacts onto the ecosystem. The benthos plays key roles in the ecosystem, supporting numerous ecosystem goods and services such as long-term carbon storage and food resources for higher trophic groups (e.g. fish, birds, mammals and including humans). Development of MREDs will initiate processes which are expected to affect benthic assemblages over various, currently unknown, spatial and temporal scales. This work provides a structured overview of ecological cause-effect relationships related to MREDs, based on a set of hypothesis-driven pathways supported by literature (〉230 publications reviewed). Furthermore, this work evaluated the sensitivity of benthic causeeffect relationships to potential effects of MREDs on different spatial and temporal scales and weighted the assessment by confidence in existing knowledge and the consistency of effects among habitats. The outcomes allowed identification of knowledge gaps about ecological processes, in order to prioritize the ‘known-unknowns’ and highlight priority research areas. Our results suggest that the sensitivity of the benthos to MREDs is much higher than previously indicated, particularly where cascading effects lead to changes in ecological functioning. Filling existing knowledge gaps and understanding ecological processes and patterns occurring at low-trophic levels, including those within the benthos, are essential to maintain ecological integrity key to the ecosystem and to society even under MREDs developments.

Description: As the EU’s commitment to renewable energy is projected to grow to 20% of energy generation by 2020, the use of marine renewable energy from wind, wave and tidal resources is increasing. This literature review (233 studies) (i) summarizes knowledge on how marine renewable energy devices affect benthic environments, (ii) explains how these effects could alter ecosystem processes that support major ecosystem services and (iii) provides an approach to determine urgent research needs. Conceptual diagrams were set up to structure hypothesized cause-effect relationships (i.e. paths). Paths were scored for (i) temporal and spatial scale of the effect, (ii) benthic sensitivity to these effects,(iii) the effect consistency and iv) scoring confidence, and consecutively ranked. This approach identified prominent knowledge gaps and research needs about (a) hydrodynamic changes possibly resulting in altered primary production with potential consequences for filter feeders, (b) the introduction and range expansion of non-native species (through stepping stone effects) and, (c) noise and vibration effects on benthic organisms. Our results further provide evidence that benthic sensitivity to offshore renewable effects is higher than previously indicated. Knowledge on changes of ecological functioning through cascading effects is limited and requires distinct hypothesis-driven research combined with integrative ecological modelling.

Description: Thousands of artificial (‘human-made’) structures are present in the marine environment, many at or approaching end-of-life and requiring urgent decisions regarding their decommissioning. No consensus has been reached on which decommissioning option(s) result in optimal environmental and societal outcomes, in part, owing to a paucity of evidence from real-world decommissioning case studies. To address this significant challenge, we asked a worldwide panel of scientists to provide their expert opinion. They were asked to identify and characterise the ecosystem effects of artificial structures in the sea, their causes and consequences, and to identify which, if any, should be retained following decommissioning. Experts considered that most of the pressures driving ecological and societal effects from marine artificial structures (MAS) were of medium severity, occur frequently, and are dependent on spatial scale with local-scale effects of greater magnitude than regional effects. The duration of many effects following decommissioning were considered to be relatively short, in the order of days. Overall, environmental effects of structures were considered marginally undesirable, while societal effects marginally desirable. Experts therefore indicated that any decision to leave MAS in place at end-of-life to be more beneficial to society than the natural environment. However, some individual environmental effects were considered desirable and worthy of retention, especially in certain geographic locations, where structures can support improved trophic linkages, increases in tourism, habitat provision, and population size, and provide stability in population dynamics. The expert analysis consensus that the effects of MAS are both negative and positive for the environment and society, gives no strong support for policy change whether removal or retention is favoured until further empirical evidence is available to justify change to the status quo. The combination of desirable and undesirable effects associated with MAS present a significant challenge for policy- and decision-makers in their justification to implement decommissioning options. Decisions may need to be decided on a case-by-case basis accounting for the trade-off in costs and benefits at a local level.