Note: Intro -- First Principles of Meteorology and Air Pollution -- Contents -- Chapter 1: Description of the Earth´s Atmosphere -- 1.1 Introduction to Atmospheric Structure and Composition -- 1.1.1 Emissions of Air Pollutants in the Atmosphere -- 1.1.2 The Earth´s Atmosphere -- 1.1.3 Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere -- 1.2 Atmosphere´s Characteristics -- 1.3 Lower Atmosphere´s Composition -- 1.3.1 Dry Atmospheric Air -- 1.3.2 Water in the Atmosphere -- 1.3.3 Atmospheric Aerosols -- 1.4 Vertical Division of the Atmosphere - Temperature Change -- 1.4.1 Troposphere -- 1.4.1.1 Tropopause -- 1.4.2 Boundary Layer -- 1.4.2.1 Mixing Layer -- 1.4.2.2 Residual Layer -- 1.4.2.3 Nocturnal Boundary Layer -- 1.4.3 Stratosphere -- 1.4.3.1 Stratopause -- 1.4.4 Mesosphere -- 1.4.4.1 Mesopause -- 1.4.5 Thermosphere -- 1.4.6 Exosphere -- 1.4.7 Ionosphere - Magnetosphere -- 1.5 Change of Meteorological Parameters with Height -- 1.5.1 Temperature Inversion -- 1.5.2 Air Density Variation with Height -- 1.5.3 Change of Atmospheric Pressure with Height -- 1.6 Model of the Standard Atmosphere -- 1.6.1 Units of Chemical Components in the Atmosphere -- 1.6.2 Unit Conversion of Concentration of Component I (mug/m3) to Volume Concentration (Ppm) -- 1.7 Radiation in the Atmosphere -- 1.7.1 Laws of Radiation -- 1.7.1.1 Kirchhoff´s Law -- 1.7.1.2 Planck´s Law -- 1.7.1.3 Wien´s First Law -- 1.7.1.4 Wien´s Second Law -- 1.7.1.5 Law of Stefan-Boltzmann -- 1.7.2 Sun´s Radiation -- 1.7.3 Earth´s Radiation -- 1.7.4 Factors That Affect the Sun´s Radiation Flux to Earth -- 1.7.4.1 Geographical Factors -- 1.7.4.2 Geometrical Factors -- 1.7.4.3 Radiation Decrease -- 1.7.5 Interaction of the Sun´s Radiation in the Atmosphere -- 1.7.5.1 Absorption of the Sun´s Radiation -- Oxygen (O2) -- Ozone (O3) -- Carbon dioxide (CO2) -- Water Vapor (H2O) -- 1.7.5.2 Scattering of the Sun´s Radiation. , Rayleigh Scattering -- Mie Scattering -- 1.7.6 Greenhouse Effect -- 1.7.7 Energy Balance of Earth and its Atmosphere -- 1.7.8 Distribution of Sun´s Radiation at the System Atmosphere-Surface -- 1.7.9 The Earth´s Climate -- 1.7.9.1 Climate Change - Reasoning -- 1.8 Examples -- 1.9 Ambient Air Quality Standards -- 1.10Appendixes -- 1.10.1Appendix1: The Hydrostatic Equation -- References -- Chapter 2: First Principles of Meteorology -- 2.1 General Aspects of Meteorology -- 2.2 Vertical Structure of the Temperature and Conditions of Atmospheric Stability -- 2.2.1 Dry Vertical Temperature Lapse Rate -- 2.2.2 Wet Vertical Temperature Lapse Rate -- 2.2.3 Temperature Inversion -- 2.3 Atmospheric Variability - Air Masses - Fronts -- 2.3.1 Air Masses -- 2.3.2 Classification of Air Masses -- 2.3.3 Fronts -- 2.3.3.1 Polar Front -- 2.3.3.2 Cold Front -- 2.3.3.3 Warm Front -- 2.3.3.4 Stationary Fronts -- 2.3.3.5 Occluded Fronts -- 2.3.4 Wave Cyclone -- 2.4 Turbulence - Equations for the Mean Values -- 2.5 Statistical Properties of Turbulence -- 2.6 Atmospheric Temperature -- 2.6.1 Temperature Season Variability -- 2.6.2 Temperature Daily Variability -- 2.6.3 Heating of the Earth´s Surface and Heat Conduction -- 2.6.4 Distribution of Temperature in the Air -- 2.7 Humidity in the Atmosphere -- 2.7.1 Mathematical Expressions of Humidity in the Atmosphere -- 2.7.1.1 Absolute Humidity (B) -- 2.7.1.2 Specific Humidity (Q) -- 2.7.1.3 Mixing Ratio (R) -- 2.7.1.4 Relative Humidity (RH) -- 2.7.2 Dew Point -- 2.7.2.1 The Evaporation of Water at Cold Air -- 2.7.2.2 The Freezing of Humid Air -- 2.7.3 Clouds in the Atmosphere -- 2.7.4 Precipitation -- 2.7.5 Study of Precipitation Scavenging -- 2.8 Applications and Examples -- References -- Chapter 3: Atmospheric Circulation -- 3.1 Atmospheric Pressure and Pressure Gradient Systems -- 3.2 Atmospheric Pressure Changes. , 3.2.1 Vertical Pressure Changes -- 3.2.2 Non-canonical Pressure Changes -- 3.2.3 Canonical Pressures Changes -- 3.3 Transfer of the Pressure to Its Mean Value at Sea Level -- 3.4 Isobaric Curves: Pressure Gradient Systems -- 3.5 Pressure Gradient Force -- 3.6 Movement of Air: Wind -- 3.6.1 Forces Which Affect the Movement of Air -- 3.6.1.1 Coriolis Force -- 3.6.1.2 Friction Force -- 3.6.1.3 Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces -- 3.6.2 Transport Equations of Air Masses in the Atmosphere -- 3.6.3 Wind Categories -- 3.6.3.1 Geostrophic Wind -- 3.6.3.2 Pressure Gradient Wind -- 3.6.3.3 Friction Wind: Law of Buys-Ballot -- 3.6.3.4 Wind at the Surface Layer -- 3.7 General Circulation in the Atmosphere -- 3.7.1 Single and Three Cell Models -- 3.7.2 Continuous Winds -- 3.7.3 Periodic Winds -- 3.7.4 Sea and Land Breeze -- 3.7.5 Mountain and Valley Breezes -- 3.8 Vertical Structure of Pressure Gradient Systems -- 3.9 Equations of Atmospheric Circulation -- 3.9.1 Equations of Circulation for a Compressible Fluid -- References -- Chapter 4: Atmospheric Chemistry -- 4.1 Chemical Components in the Atmosphere -- 4.2 Chemistry of the Troposphere -- 4.2.1 Sulphur Components -- 4.2.2 Nitrogen Components -- 4.2.3 Carbon Components -- 4.2.4 Halogen Components -- 4.3 Particulate Matter -- 4.4 Photochemistry in the Free Troposphere -- 4.4.1 Photochemical Cycle of Ozone and Nitrogen Oxides -- 4.4.2 Chemistry of Carbon Dioxide -- 4.4.3 Chemistry of Hydrocarbons -- 4.4.4 Chemistry of Sulphur Compounds -- 4.5 Components of Aquatic Chemistry in the Atmosphere -- 4.6 Chemistry of the Stratosphere - Ozone -- References -- Chapter 5: Atmospheric Aerosols -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Size Distribution of Aerosols -- 5.3 Chemical Composition of Aerosols -- 5.4 Organic Aerosols -- 5.4.1 Elemental Carbon- Primary Organic Carbon. , 5.4.2 Secondary Organic Matter Formation (Secondary Organic Carbon) -- 5.5 Dynamics of Atmospheric Particulate Matter -- 5.5.1 New Particle Formation -- 5.5.1.1 Nucleation Theory - Kinetic Method -- 5.5.1.2 Calculation of the Nucleation Rate -- 5.5.1.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation -- 5.5.2 Condensation and Evaporation -- 5.5.3 Coagulation -- 5.6 Bioaerosols - Definition -- References -- Chapter 6: Atmospheric Dispersion: Gaussian Models -- 6.1 Theories of Atmospheric Diffusion -- 6.2 Euler Description -- 6.3 Lagrange Description -- 6.4 Equations Describing the Concentration of Pollutants at Turbulent Conditions -- 6.4.1 Diffusion Equation in Euler Description -- 6.4.2 Diffusion Equation in Lagrange Description -- 6.4.3 Solution of the Diffusion Equation for a Continuous Source with the Euler Methodology -- 6.5 Gaussian Model -- 6.5.1 Limitations of the Gaussian Model -- 6.5.1.1 Conditions of Intense Instability -- 6.5.1.2 Emissions Close to the Surface -- 6.5.2 Calculation of the sigmay and sigmaz Coefficients. Stability Methodology -- 6.5.3 Plume Rise -- 6.5.3.1 Plume Rise due to Initial Momentum Under Neutral or Unstable Stability Conditions in the Atmosphere -- 6.5.3.2 Thermal Rise Under Neutral or Unstable Stability Conditions in the Atmosphere -- 6.5.3.3 Stable Conditions -- 6.5.3.4 Plume Rise due to Momentum Under Stable Conditions -- 6.5.3.5 Thermal Rise Under Stable Atmospheric Conditions -- 6.5.4 Atmospheric Stability - Application to the Gaussian Models -- 6.6 Analytical Solutions of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation -- 6.7 Two-Dimensional, Time Independent Line-Continuous Source with Changing Values of Velocity and Diffusion Coefficient -- 6.8 Characteristics of Plume Dispersion - Stability Conditions -- 6.9 Examples and Applications -- 6.10Appendix6.1The Continuity Equation -- References. , Chapter 7: Atmospheric Models: Emissions of Pollutants -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Dispersion Equations for Pollutant Transport at the Euler and Lagrange Coordinating Systems -- 7.2.1 Model of a Single Volume in the Euler System -- 7.2.2 Three Dimensional Models of Atmospheric Pollution -- 7.3 Statistical Evaluation of Atmospheric Models -- 7.4 Emissions of Atmospheric Pollutants -- 7.5 Emissions from the Biosphere -- 7.5.1 Emissions of Volatile Organic Compoundsfrom Vegetation -- 7.5.2 Calculation of Biogenic Emissions -- 7.5.3 Sea Salt Emissions -- 7.5.4 Emissions of Air Pollutants from the Earth´s Surface -- 7.5.5 Emissions of Pollutants from Forest Fires -- 7.6 Examples and Applications -- References -- Chapter 8: Indoor Air Pollution -- 8.1 Introduction to Indoor Air Quality -- 8.2 Ozone -- 8.3 Nitrogen Oxides -- 8.4 Volatile Organic Compounds -- 8.5 Chemistry of Organic Compounds Indoors -- 8.6 Radon -- 8.6.1 Radiactive Decay of Radon Isotopes -- 8.6.2 Exposure and Dose of Radon in Indoor Environment -- 8.6.3 Examples -- 8.7 Carbon Monoxide -- 8.8 Asbestos -- 8.9 Heavy Metals -- 8.10 Formaldehyde -- 8.11 Pesticides -- 8.12 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) -- 8.13 Polychloric Biphenyls (Pcbs) -- 8.14 Tobacco Smoke -- 8.15 Bioaerosols -- 8.16 Microenvironmental Models -- 8.17 Air Exchange Rate by Infiltration -- 8.18 Emission Models -- 8.19 Deposition Models -- 8.19.1 Examples -- References -- Chapter 9: Human Exposure and Health Risk from Air Pollutants -- 9.1 Human Exposure and Doses from Air Pollutants -- 9.2 Exposure Pathways -- 9.2.1 Dermal Absorption -- 9.2.2 Inhalation Exposure -- 9.3 Calculation of Dose-Response Functions -- 9.3.1 Dose Calculation Through Intake -- 9.3.2 Internal Dose Calculation Through Dermal Absorption -- 9.3.3 Internal Dose Calculation Through Inhalation and Food Intake -- 9.3.4 Functions of Dose-Response. , 9.4 Particulate Matter Dose Through Inhalation.

Note: Intro -- Preface -- Contributors -- Trond Bøhler -- Martin Braniš -- Ian Colbeck -- Christos Housiadas -- Chapter 1 -- Environmental Levels -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Primary Emissions of Air Pollutants -- 1.3 Ambient Air Quality Standards -- 1.4 Ambient Air Pollution Concentrations Over Europe -- 1.4.1 Ambient Levels of Gaseous Pollutants -- 1.4.2 Ambient Levels of Particulate Matter -- 1.5 Composition of PM10 -- 1.6 Indoor Air Pollution -- 1.7 Drinking Water Quality -- 1.7.1 Standards -- 1.7.2 Disinfection By-products -- 1.7.3 THM Concentrations -- References -- Chapter 2 -- Indoor Air Pollution -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Indoor-Outdoor Measurements in Oslo -- 2.3 Particle Emission Rates -- 2.4 Bioaerosols -- 2.4.1 Indoor Concentrations -- 2.4.2 Size Distribution -- 2.5 Indoor Air Quality in Developing Countries -- 2.6 Transport Micro-environments -- 2.7 Summary -- References -- Chapter 3 -- Chemical Reactions Among Indoor Pollutants -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Indoor Air Quality Models That Incorporate Chemistry -- 3.3 Ozone and Related Chemistry -- 3.3.1 Homogeneous Chemistry -- 3.3.1.1 Indoor Smog Chemistry -- 3.3.1.2 Ozone and Organic Compounds -- 3.3.1.3 Hydroxyl Radical Chemistry -- 3.3.1.4 Nitrate Chemistry -- 3.4 Heterogeneous Ozone Chemistry -- 3.4.1 Ozone and Carpet -- 3.4.2 Latex Paint -- 3.4.3 HVAC Materials -- 3.4.4 Surface Aging and Regeneration by Soiling -- 3.5 Auto-oxidation, Hydrolysis, Acid-Base, and Chlorine Chemistry -- 3.5.1 Auto-oxidation -- 3.5.2 Hydrolysis -- 3.5.3 Acid-Base Chemistry -- 3.5.4 Chlorine Chemistry -- 3.6 Control of Indoor Chemistry and Control in Indoor Air Quality Using Chemistry -- 3.6.1 Control of Ozone Chemistry -- 3.6.2 Misguided Chemistry for Controlling Indoor Air Quality -- 3.7 Summary -- References -- Chapter 4 -- Personal Exposure Measurements -- 4.1 Introduction. , 4.2 Concepts and Definitions of Personal Exposure -- 4.2.1 Basic Risk Model -- 4.2.2 Exposure -- 4.3 Direct Approach -- 4.3.1 Selection of a Sample Population -- 4.3.2 Personal Samplers -- 4.3.2.1 Personal Monitoring of Particulate Matter -- 4.3.2.2 Personal Monitors for Gases and Vapours -- 4.3.2.3 Future Trends in Personal Exposure Measurements -- 4.4 Indirect Approach -- 4.4.1 Fixed-Site Monitoring Approach -- 4.4.2 Microenvironmental Approach -- 4.4.2.1 Human Activity Information -- 4.4.3 Biomonitoring -- 4.4.3.1 Biomarkers -- 4.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5 -- Health Effects of Air Pollutants -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Epidemiological Evidence and Mechanisms of Toxicity -- 5.3 Outdoor Air Pollutants -- 5.3.1 Inorganic Gases -- 5.3.1.1 Sulphur Dioxide -- Mechanisms of Action -- Short-term Effects -- Long-Term Effects -- 5.3.1.2 Nitrogen Dioxide -- Mechanisms of Action and Chamber Studies -- Short-Term Effects -- Long-Term Effects -- 5.3.1.3 Ozone -- Mechanisms of Action and Chamber Studies -- Short-Term Effects -- Long-Term Effects -- 5.3.1.4 Carbon Monoxide -- Mechanisms of Action -- Short-Term Effects -- Long-Term Effects -- 5.3.2 Particles -- 5.3.2.1 Mechanism of Action -- 5.3.2.2 Short-Term Effects -- 5.3.2.3 Long-Term Effects -- 5.3.2.4 Health Effects of Ultrafine Particles -- 5.3.2.5 Lead -- 5.3.3 Organic Gases -- 5.3.3.1 Benzene -- Mechanisms of Action -- Carcinogenicity -- Other Health Effects -- 5.3.3.2 1,3-Butadiene -- Mechanisms of Action -- Carcinogenicity -- Other Health Effects -- 5.3.3.3 Formaldehyde -- Mechanisms of Action -- Carcinogenicity -- Other Health Effects -- 5.3.3.4 Benzo[a]pyrene -- Mechanisms of Action -- Carcinogenicity -- Other Health Effects -- 5.3.4 Biological Contaminants -- 5.3.4.1 Pollen -- 5.3.4.2 Fungi -- 5.3.4.3 Bacteria -- 5.3.4.4 Algae -- 5.4 Indoor Air Pollutants. , 5.5 Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries -- 5.6 Multi-pollutant Mixtures -- 5.7 Health-Based Air Quality Guidelines and Regulations -- 5.8 Risk Analysis and Health Impact Assessment -- 5.9 Discussion and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6 -- Inhalation Dosimetry Modelling -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Physicochemical Properties of Aerosols -- 6.3 The Respiratory System -- 6.4 Deposition and Clearance Mechanisms -- 6.4.1 Deposition of Particles in the Human Respiratory Tract -- 6.4.2 Particle Clearance in the Human Respiratory Tract -- 6.5 Particle Deposition Measurements -- 6.6 Computational Methods -- 6.6.1 Classification of Models -- 6.6.2 Empirical Compartmental Modeling: The ICRP Model -- 6.7 Whole-RT 1D Mechanistic Modeling -- 6.7.1 Lagrangian Modelling -- 6.7.2 Eulerian Modelling -- 6.7.3 Stochastic Lung Modelling -- 6.7.4 Aerosol Dynamics Effects -- 6.8 CFD-Based Mechanistic Modeling -- 6.8.1 Airflow Within the Respiratory Tract -- 6.8.1.1 Airway Ventilation -- 6.8.1.2 Velocity Field -- 6.8.1.3 Mixing of Fresh and Resident Air -- 6.8.1.4 Particle Deposition in the Respiratory Tract -Extrathoracic models -- References -- Chapter 7 -- Dermal Absorption Modelling -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 The Dermal Absorption Barrier -- 7.2.1 General Structure of Skin -- 7.2.2 Other "Barriers" to Absorption -- 7.3 Animal Models -- 7.4 Experimental Approaches -- 7.4.1 In Vivo Approaches -- 7.4.2 In Vitro Approaches -- 7.5 Mathematical Modeling Considerations -- 7.5.1 QSAR Approach -- 7.5.2 Mixture Exposure -- 7.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8 -- Micro-environmental Modelling -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Simple Indoor Air Models -- 8.2.1 Indoor-Outdoor Air Exchange Process: Ventilation Rate -- 8.2.2 Penetration Process -- 8.2.3 Deposition Process on Indoor Surfaces -- 8.3 Multiple-Component Indoor Air Models: Sectional Indoor Air Models. , 8.3.1 Interpretation of Particle Size-Sections in a SIAM -- 8.4 Multiple-Compartment and Multiple-Component Indoor Air Models: General Formulation -- 8.4.1 Aerosol Dynamic Scheme UHMA -- 8.4.1.1 Coagulation -- 8.4.1.2 Condensation of Vapours -- 8.4.2 Indoor-Outdoor Air Exchange and the Penetration Process -- 8.4.3 Internal Air Exchange Between Indoor Compartments -- 8.4.4 Deposition and Re-suspension Processes -- 8.5 Mathematical Solutions and Applications of Indoor Air Models -- 8.5.1 Analytical Solution for a Simple Indoor Air Model -- 8.5.1.1 Steady-State Conditions -- 8.5.1.2 The Infiltration Factor, INF -- 8.5.2 Estimation of the Controlling Parameters with a SIAM -- 8.5.3 Numerical Simulations -- 8.5.4 Indoor Sources and Emission Rate Estimation -- 8.5.4.1 Semi-empirical Estimation of the Emission Rate -- References -- Chapter 9 -- Air Quality Management and Personal Exposure -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Air Quality Management and Assessment -- 9.3 Management Systems -- 9.3.1 Design of Air Quality Monitoring Networks -- 9.3.2 Emission Inventories -- 9.3.2.1 Point Sources -- 9.3.2.2 Line Sources -- 9.3.2.3 Area Sources -- 9.3.3 Meteorological Models -- 9.3.3.1 Meteorological Measurements -- 9.3.3.2 Wind Field Modelling -- 9.3.4 Atmospheric Dispersion Models -- 9.3.5 Population Exposure -- 9.3.5.1 Grid Square Exposure -- 9.3.5.2 Sub Grid Exposure -- 9.3.5.3 Personal Exposure -- 9.4 Urban Exposure Management Tool -- 9.4.1 Introduction -- 9.4.2 Particulate Matter -- 9.4.3 Multi Pathway Gas Uptake -- 9.4.4 The Tool for Calculating Personal Exposure -- 9.4.4.1 Personal Characteristics and Daily Routine -- 9.4.4.2 Indoor Sources -- 9.4.4.3 Features -- 9.4.4.4 Multi Pathway Gas Uptake -- 9.5 Case Studies -- 9.5.1 Oslo Case Study Results -- 9.5.1.1 Case 1: Travelling Alternatives -- 9.5.2 Cases 2 and 3 -- 9.6 Summary of Case Studies -- References.