Note: Intro -- Preface -- Contents -- Chapter 1: Climatic Adaptation of Boreal and Temperate Tree Species -- 1.1 Thermal Conditions in the Boreal and the Temperate Zone -- 1.1.1 Seasonal and Geographical Variation -- 1.1.2 Year-to-Year Variation -- 1.2 Night Length in the Boreal and the Temperate Zone -- 1.3 The Annual Cycle as an Adaptive Strategy -- 1.4 Organisation of the Book -- References -- Chapter 2: Dynamic Modelling of the Annual Cycle -- 2.1 A Hypothetico-Deductive Modelling Framework -- 2.2 Basic Concepts -- 2.3 The Modelling Principle -- 2.4 Model Realism and the Discipline of Whole-Tree Ecophysiology -- 2.5 Summary -- List of Symbols -- Time-Dependent Environmental Variables -- Time-Dependent Rate and State Variables -- Model Parameters -- Other Symbols -- References -- Chapter 3: The Annual Phenological Cycle -- 3.1 The Phenomena, the Observations, and the Measurements Involved -- 3.1.1 Tree Phenology: The Study of the Timing of Seasonal Point Events -- 3.1.1.1 The Concept of Phenology -- 3.1.1.2 Point Events Frequently Addressed in Modelling Studies -- 3.1.1.3 Large Temporal and Spatial Scales -- 3.1.2 The Anatomical and Physiological Basis -- 3.1.3 Implications for Modelling -- 3.2 Direct Environmental Regulation of Spring Phenology -- 3.2.1 The High Temperature Requirement -- 3.2.1.1 Day Degree Models -- 3.2.1.2 Ecophysiological Explication of the Day Degree Models -- 3.2.1.3 Experimental Studies -- 3.2.1.4 Introducing the Experimental Results into the Modelling -- 3.2.1.5 Effects of Fluctuating Temperatures -- 3.2.2 The Unique Role of Air Temperature in Comparison with Other Environmental Factors -- 3.3 Dormancy in the Buds -- 3.3.1 The Nomenclature for Dormancy -- 3.3.1.1 Three Categories of Dormancy -- 3.3.1.2 Vegis´s Theory and the Post-Rest Model -- 3.3.2 The Chilling Requirement of Rest Completion -- 3.3.2.1 Experimental Studies. , 3.3.2.2 Introducing the Experimental Results into the Modelling -- 3.3.3 Effects of Night Length on Rest Break -- 3.4 Overall Environmental Regulation of Spring Phenology -- 3.4.1 Synthesizing the Effects of Chilling and Those of High Temperatures -- 3.4.1.1 A Generalised Model for Growth Onset -- 3.4.1.2 Predictions for Model Testing -- 3.4.1.3 Comparison of the Parallel and the Post-Rest Model -- 3.4.2 Effects of Night Length -- 3.4.3 Effects of Other Environmental Factors -- 3.4.4 The Paradox of Rest Completion -- 3.4.4.1 Contradictory Findings Concerning Rest Completion -- 3.4.4.2 Attempts to Resolve the Paradox -- 3.4.5 Quantitative Dormancy Induction -- 3.4.6 Alternative Modelling Approaches -- 3.4.6.1 Ecophysiological, Phenological, and Intermediate Approach -- 3.4.6.2 Mechanistic Models -- 3.4.6.3 The Unified Model of Growth Onset -- 3.4.6.4 The DORMPHOT Model of Growth Onset -- 3.4.6.5 The Alternating Model of Growth Onset -- 3.5 Environmental Regulation of Height Growth Cessation -- 3.5.1 The Autonomous Theory and the Signal Theory -- 3.5.2 The Effects of Night Length -- 3.5.3 The Effects of Air Temperature -- 3.5.3.1 The Cumulative Effect of Air Temperature and Its Joint Effect with Night Length -- 3.5.3.2 Further Effects of Air Temperature -- 3.6 Modelling the Entire Annual Phenological Cycle -- 3.6.1 Sarvas´s (1972, 1974) Model -- 3.6.2 Kellomäki et al.´s (1992, 1995) Model -- 3.6.3 Fuchigami et al.´s (1982) GS Model -- 3.6.4 Comparison of the Models and Their Further Use as Sub-models -- 3.7 Summary -- List of Symbols -- Time-Dependent Environmental Variables -- Time-Dependent Rate and State Variables -- Ontogenetic Development -- Rest Break -- Development During Growing Season -- Variable Mediating the Effect of Rest Break on the Ontogenetic Development -- Model Parameters -- Ontogenetic Development -- Rest Break -- Other Symbols. , Ontogenetic Development -- Rest Break -- Variables for a Regrowth Test -- References -- Chapter 4: The Annual Cycle of Photosynthesis in Evergreen Conifers -- 4.1 The Phenomena and the Measurements Involved -- 4.1.1 Measuring the Carbon Dioxide Exchange -- 4.1.1.1 The Leaf, Shoot, and Plant Level -- 4.1.1.2 The Ecosystem Level -- 4.1.2 The Annual Cycle of Photosynthetic Capacity -- 4.1.2.1 Photosynthetic Capacity as a Whole-Tree Attribute of Conifer Ecophysiology -- 4.1.2.2 The Physiological Basis -- 4.1.3 Implications for Modelling -- 4.2 Effects of Air Temperature -- 4.2.1 Fluctuating Effects of Air Temperature -- 4.2.1.1 A Fluctuating Model of Photosynthetic Capacity -- 4.2.1.2 Further Development of the Model -- 4.2.1.3 Contradictory Evidence from Wintertime Photosynthesis -- 4.2.2 Effects of Frost -- 4.3 Effects of Other Environmental Factors -- 4.3.1 Effects of Light and Improving the Realism of the Models -- 4.3.2 Effects of Soil Temperature and Ground Frost -- 4.4 Year-to-Year Variation in the Recovery of Photosynthesis -- 4.5 Summary -- List of Symbols -- Time-Dependent Environmental Variables -- Time-Dependent Rate and State Variables -- Model Parameters -- Other Symbols -- References -- Chapter 5: The Annual Cycle of Frost Hardiness -- 5.1 The Phenomena and the Measurements Involved -- 5.1.1 Frost Hardiness as a Whole-Tree Attribute of Tree Ecophysiology -- 5.1.2 Methods for Assessing Frost Hardiness -- 5.1.3 Implications for Modelling -- 5.2 Direct Environmental Regulation of Frost Hardiness -- 5.2.1 Fluctuating Effects of Air Temperature -- 5.2.1.1 A Fluctuating Model of Frost Hardiness -- 5.2.1.2 Comparisons with Photosynthetic Capacity and Other Physiological Attributes -- 5.2.2 Combined Effects of Air Temperature and Night Length -- 5.3 Overall Environmental Regulation of Frost Hardiness. , 5.3.1 Changing Environmental Responses During the Annual Cycle -- 5.3.2 Integrated Models of Frost Hardiness -- 5.3.2.1 Historical Overview -- 5.3.2.2 Kellomäki et al.´s (1992, 1995) Integrated Model -- 5.3.2.3 Leinonen´s (1996a) Integrated Model -- 5.3.2.4 Predictions of Leinonen´s (1996a) Model -- 5.3.2.5 The Realism and Future Development of the Models -- 5.4 Year-to-Year Variation in Frost Hardiness and Damage -- 5.5 Summary -- List of Symbols -- Time-Dependent Environmental Variables -- Time-Dependent Rate and State Variables -- Auxiliary Frost Hardiness Variables -- Variable Mediating the Effects on the Annual Phenological Cycle on Frost Hardiness -- Model Parameters -- References -- Chapter 6: Evolutionary Aspects of the Annual Cycle -- 6.1 Proximate and Ultimate Causes for Tree Seasonality -- 6.2 The Trade-Off Between Survival and Growth -- 6.2.1 Survival Adaptation and Capacity Adaptation -- 6.2.2 The Timing of Growth Onset -- 6.2.3 The Timing of Growth Cessation -- 6.3 Differences Among Tree Provenances -- 6.3.1 An Ecophysiological Approach to Genetic Differences -- 6.3.2 Tree Development in Spring and Early Summer -- 6.3.2.1 Linsser´s Principle -- 6.3.2.2 Computational Examination of the Effect of Natural Selection on Hcrit -- 6.3.3 Tree Development in Late Summer and Early Autumn -- 6.3.4 Tree Development in Late Autumn and Winter -- 6.4 Differences Among Tree Species Under the Same Climatic Conditions -- 6.5 Effects of the Maternal Environment -- 6.6 Modelling Evolutionary Change in Tree Populations -- 6.7 Summary -- List of Symbols -- Time-Dependent Environmental Variables -- Other Environmental Variables -- Time-Dependent Model Variables -- Other Model Variables -- Model Parameters -- Other Symbols -- References -- Chapter 7: Upscaling to Higher Levels of Organisation -- 7.1 Upscaling to the Stand and the Ecosystem Level. , 7.1.1 The Principle of Upscaling -- 7.1.2 The Seasonality of Photosynthesis and Forest Productivity -- 7.2 Upscaling to the Continental and the Global Level -- 7.2.1 Modelling the Geographical Ranges of Tree Species -- 7.2.2 Dynamic Global Vegetation Models -- 7.3 Summary -- References -- Chapter 8: The Annual Cycle Under Changing Climatic Conditions -- 8.1 Climatic Scenarios for Ecologists -- 8.2 Methods for Assessing the Ecological Effects of Climate Change -- 8.2.1 Paleoecological and Dendrochronological Methods -- 8.2.2 Empirical Methods -- 8.2.2.1 An Ideal Empirical Method for Reference Purposes -- 8.2.2.2 Field Observations in Natural Conditions -- 8.2.2.3 Long-Term Field Trials with Transferred Trees -- 8.2.2.4 Experiments in Controlled Conditions -- 8.2.3 Numerical Methods -- 8.2.3.1 Computer Modelling in Ecological Scenario Studies -- 8.2.3.2 Climate Envelope Modelling -- 8.2.3.3 Process-Based Modelling -- 8.2.4 The Universal Principle of Ecological Scenario Studies -- 8.3 The Frost Damage Hypothesis -- 8.3.1 Deducing the Frost Damage Hypothesis -- 8.3.1.1 A Conceptual Frost Damage Hypothesis -- 8.3.1.2 The Frost Damage Hypothesis for Boreal Conditions -- 8.3.1.3 The Frost Damage Hypothesis for Temperate Conditions -- 8.3.2 Tests of the Frost Damage Hypothesis -- 8.3.2.1 Provenance Transfer Trials -- 8.3.2.2 Whole-Tree Chamber Experiments -- 8.3.2.3 Findings from Observational Studies -- 8.3.3 Ecophysiological Traits Critical for the Frost Damage Hypothesis -- 8.3.3.1 Model Comparisons to Identify the Critical Traits -- 8.3.3.2 The Air Temperature Response of the Rate of Ontogenetic Development -- 8.3.3.3 Rest Completion -- 8.3.3.4 The Phase of Post-Rest -- 8.3.3.5 A Comparison of the Three Critical Traits -- 8.3.3.6 Long-Term Phenomena Calling for New Modelling Principles -- 8.3.3.7 Experimental Designs for the Critical Traits. , 8.4 Effects on the Seasonality of Growth.