Note: Cover -- Half Title -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Editors -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Semiconductor Optical Fibers -- Chapter 2: Optical Properties of Semiconducting Materials for Solar Photocatalysis -- Chapter 3: Semiconductor Optical Memory Devices -- Chapter 4: Semiconductor Optical Utilization in Agriculture -- Chapter 5: Nonlinear Optical Properties of Semiconductors, Principles, and Applications -- Chapter 6: Semiconductor Photoresistors -- Chapter 7: Semiconductor Photovoltaic -- Chapter 8: Progress and Challenges of Semiconducting Materials for Solar Photocatalysis -- Chapter 9: Linear Optical Properties of Semiconductors: Principles and Applications -- Chapter 10: Computational Techniques on Optical Properties of Metal-Oxide Semiconductors -- Index.

Note: Cover -- Series Page -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Aging Process of Microplastics in the Environment -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Impact of MPs on the Environment -- 1.3 Pristine and Aged Microplastics -- 1.4 Influence of Aging Processes in the Properties of MPs -- 1.4.1 Physical Properties -- 1.4.2 Chemical Properties -- 1.5 Simulation in the Laboratory of the Different Aging Effects -- 1.5.1 Radiation -- 1.5.2 Chemical Oxidation and Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP) -- 1.5.3 Mechanical Stress -- 1.5.4 Biodegradation -- 1.6 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Bioplastics -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Life Cycle Assessment -- 2.1.2 Specialized LCA Software -- 2.2 Purpose and Approach of this Chapter -- 2.3 Development of Life Cycle Assessments for Bioplastics -- 2.3.1 Functional Unit and Scope Definition -- 2.3.2 Conventional Plastics vs. Bioplastics Analyses -- 2.3.3 Primary Applications for Which LCA was Performed -- 2.3.4 Evaluation Methods and Impact Categories Analyzed -- 2.3.5 End of Life (EoL) Scenarios -- 2.4 Discussion -- 2.4.1 Evaluation Methods and Impact Categories -- 2.4.2 End of Life (EoL) -- 2.5 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 3 Micro- and Nanoplastics-An Invisible Threat to Human Health -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Routes of Exposure -- 3.2.1 Inhalation -- 3.2.2 Dermal Contact -- 3.2.3 Ingestion -- 3.3 Phenomenon of Microplastics in Nourishment and Nutrients -- 3.3.1 Sodium Chloride -- 3.3.2 Marine Organisms (Crawfish, Mussel, Oyster): Techniques Used for Microplastic Identification -- 3.3.3 Canned and Prepackaged Foods -- 3.3.4 Soil Biome -- 3.4 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Mammalian Health -- 3.5 Nanoplastics and Microplastics: Effects on Environment and Marine Life -- 3.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments. , Conflict of Interest -- References -- Chapter 4 Microplastics and Nanoplastics and Related Chemicals: The Physical-Chemical Interactions -- 4.1 Introduction to Micro- and Nanoplastics -- 4.2 Sources and Distribution of Micro- and Nanoplastics -- 4.3 Ecological Impacts of Micro- and Nanoplastics -- 4.4 Food Contamination and Human Exposure to Micro- and Nanoplastics -- 4.5 Toxicological Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics on Human Health -- 4.5.1 Sources and Routes of Exposure -- 4.5.1.1 Ingestion -- 4.5.1.2 Inhalation -- 4.5.1.3 Dermal Exposure -- 4.5.2 Toxicological Effects -- 4.5.2.1 Inflammation and Immune Response -- 4.5.2.2 Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity -- 4.5.2.3 Endocrine Disruption -- 4.6 Conclusions and Recommendations for Mitigating the Toxic Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics -- 4.6.1 Reduce Plastic Production and Use -- 4.6.2 Improving Waste Management -- 4.6.3 Enhance Public Awareness -- 4.6.4 Develop and Implement Testing Protocols -- 4.6.5 Future Research -- References -- Chapter 5 Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Sources, Distribution, Behaviors, and Fate -- List of Abbreviations -- 5.1 Micro- and Nanoplastics: Principles and Sources -- 5.2 Micro- and Nanoplastic Behavior -- 5.2.1 Physiochemical Properties of MNPs: Toxicity and Reactivity -- 5.2.1.1 Petrochemical-Based Plastics -- 5.2.1.2 Bio-MNPs as a New Cause of Concern -- 5.2.1.3 Biological and Environmental Hazards of MNPs: The Effects on Biodiversity -- 5.3 Micro- and Nanoplastics' Distribution and Fate: From Terrestrial and Aquatic Environments to the Human Body -- 5.3.1 Terrestrial Environments -- 5.3.2 Aquatic Environments -- 5.3.3 Air and Atmosphere -- 5.3.4 Wastewater Treatment Plants -- 5.3.5 Cells and Organs -- 5.4 The Effect of Abiotic and Biotic Factors on MNPs' Behavior and Fate -- 5.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives -- References. , Chapter 6 Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Food -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Sources of Micro-Nanoplastics Affecting Food -- 6.2.1 Micro-Nanoplastics in Seafood -- 6.2.2 Micro-Nanoplastics in Water and Beverages -- 6.2.3 Micro-Nanoplastics in Meat -- 6.2.4 Micro-Nanoplastics in Fruits and Vegetables -- 6.2.5 Micro-Nanoplastics in Other Food Sources -- 6.3 Impact of Micro-Nanoplastics -- 6.4 Direct Impact on Human Health -- 6.4.1 Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis -- 6.4.2 Autophagy -- 6.4.3 Damage to Different Body Cells -- 6.4.4 Inflammation -- 6.5 Affecting the Food Chain -- 6.6 Detection of Micro-Nanoplastics in Food -- 6.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 7 Microplastics: Properties, Effect on the Environment and Removal Methods -- 7.1 An Insight Into Microplastics (MPs) -- 7.2 Microplastic Definitions -- 7.3 Properties of MPs -- 7.4 Primary and Secondary Microplastics -- 7.5 Microbeads -- 7.6 Impacts of MPs -- 7.6.1 Ecological Impacts -- 7.6.2 Chemical Impacts -- 7.6.3 Socio-Economic Impact -- 7.6.4 Removal of MPs -- 7.6.5 Chemical Method -- 7.6.6 Absorption and Filtration -- 7.6.7 Biological Method of Removal of MPs -- 7.7 Global Initiatives -- 7.7.1 United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 14) -- 7.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8 Identification, Quantification, and Presence of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Beverages Around the World -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.1.1 Water Consumption Around the World -- 8.1.2 Water in the Beverage Industry -- 8.1.3 Water Quality and Water Pollution -- 8.2 Methodology -- 8.3 Results -- 8.3.1 Countries where Studies were Performed -- 8.3.2 Techniques for Identification and Extraction of Microplastics -- 8.3.2.1 Selection of the Type of Beverages -- 8.3.2.2 Sample Preparation -- 8.3.2.3 Digestion -- 8.3.2.4 Filtration -- 8.3.2.5 Visual Identification and Characterization. , 8.3.2.6 Quality Control and Contamination Prevention -- 8.4 Microplastic Concentrations in Beverages -- 8.5 Microplastic Characterization in Beverages -- 8.5.1 Microplastic Sizes -- 8.5.2 Microplastic Types -- 8.5.3 Microplastic Colors -- 8.5.4 Microplastic Chemical Composition -- 8.6 Human Exposure -- 8.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 9 Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Terrestrial Systems -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Micro/Nanoplastics in Soil -- 9.2.1 Source of Micro/Nano Plastics in Soils -- 9.2.2 Effect of Micro/Nanoplastics -- 9.2.2.1 Effect of Micro/Nanoplastics on the Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil -- 9.2.2.2 Effect of Micro/Nanoplastics on Soil Microorganisms -- 9.2.2.3 Effect of Micro/Nanoplastics on Soil Fauna -- 9.2.3 Degradation and Transport of Micro/Nanoplastics -- 9.3 Micro/Nanoplastics in Plants -- 9.3.1 Source of Micro/Nanoplastics -- 9.3.1.1 Plastic Mulching -- 9.3.1.2 Packaging -- 9.3.1.3 Irrigation Water -- 9.3.1.4 Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) -- 9.3.1.5 Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) -- 9.3.1.6 Air-Borne -- 9.3.1.7 Others -- 9.3.2 Migration or Uptake of Micro/Nanoplastics From Soil and Atmosphere -- 9.3.2.1 Uptake Pathways of Micro/Nanoplastics -- 9.3.3 Accumulation and Translocation -- 9.3.4 Effect of Micro- and Nano Plastics -- 9.3.4.1 Inhibitory Effect -- 9.3.4.2 Blocking Pores or Light -- 9.3.4.3 Mechanical Damage to Roots -- 9.3.4.4 Hindering Gene Expression -- 9.3.4.5 Release of Additives -- 9.3.4.6 Adsorption or Transport of Contaminant -- 9.3.4.7 Alteration of Soil Properties -- 9.3.4.8 Effect on Soil Microbes -- 9.3.4.9 Stimulatory Effect -- 9.3.4.10 Soil Microbial Community and Root Symbionts -- 9.4 Micro/Nanoplastics in Terrestrial Organism -- 9.4.1 Effect of Micro/Nanoplastics on Terrestrial Living Things -- 9.4.1.1 Ingestion -- 9.4.1.2 Gastrointestinal Tract. , 9.4.1.3 Microplastics on Respiratory Pathways -- 9.4.1.4 Interaction of Microplastics on Gut Microbiota -- 9.4.1.5 Endocrine System -- 9.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 10 Microplastics in Cosmetics and Personal Care Products -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Personal Care Products (PCPs) and Cosmetics -- 10.1.1.1 Consumption and Categorization -- 10.1.1.2 Microbeads in PCPs and Cosmetics -- 10.1.1.3 Environmental Effects of Microplastics -- 10.2 Methodology -- 10.3 Results -- 10.4 Characterization of Microplastics in PCPs and Cosmetics -- 10.4.1 Types of Samples -- 10.4.2 Per Country of Origin -- 10.4.3 Forms of Microplastics -- 10.4.4 Colors of Microplastics Found in PCPs and Cosmetics -- 10.4.5 Sizes of Microplastics -- 10.4.6 Types of Polymers -- 10.4.7 Experimental Methods Used to Extract and Analyze Microplastics -- 10.4.7.1 Extraction Method -- 10.4.7.2 Particle Size Analysis Method -- 10.4.7.3 Polymer Type Analysis Methods -- 10.5 Interaction Between Microplastics from PCPs and Other Substances -- 10.6 Toxicity of Microplastics from Personal Care Products and Cosmetics -- 10.6.1 Toxicity of Different Types of MP -- 10.6.2 Effects in Different Organism's Groups -- 10.6.2.1 Bacteria -- 10.6.2.2 Plants -- 10.6.2.3 Phytoplankton -- 10.6.2.4 Algae -- 10.6.2.5 Animals -- 10.6.2.6 Humans (Cells) -- 10.7 Worldwide Bans on Microbeads in PCPs and Cosmetics -- 10.8 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 11 Study on Microplastic Content in Cosmetic Products and Their Detrimental Effect on Human Health -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Cosmetic Products in India -- 11.3 Source of Plastics and Microplastics -- 11.4 Uptake and Bio-Accumulation of Microplastics -- 11.5 Effect of Microplastic Exposure on Human Health -- 11.5.1 Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis -- 11.5.2 Inflammation -- 11.5.3 Metabolic Homeostasis. , 11.6 Alternatives of Microplastics in Cosmetic Products.

Note: Cover -- Series Page -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Wind Energy: From Past to Present Technology -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Historical Background -- 1.3 Use of Wind Energy in Specific Countries -- 1.4 Wind Technology -- 1.4.1 Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) -- 1.4.2 Electric Generator -- 1.4.3 Evolution of Power Electronics -- 1.4.4 Energy Storage Technology -- 1.5 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs) -- 1.5.1 History -- 1.5.2 Design -- 1.5.3 Components -- 1.5.4 Working Principle -- 1.5.5 Applications -- 1.6 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) -- 1.6.1 Working Principle -- 1.7 Current Technologies in Wind Power Generation -- 1.7.1 Buoyant Airborne Turbine (BAT) -- 1.7.2 Offshore Floating Wind Technology -- 1.8 Advantages -- 1.9 Disadvantages of Wind Energy -- 1.10 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2 Environmental Consequences of Wind Energy Technologies -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Impact of Wind Energy on the Environment -- 2.3 Key Environmental White Paper Issues Related to Wind Power -- 2.4 Individual Effects on Population Impacts -- 2.5 Comprehending the Overall Effects of Wind Power on Wildlife -- 2.6 Considerations for the Environment when Making Choices -- 2.7 Wind Power and Risk Management -- 2.8 Concerns About Using Wind Energy -- 2.9 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 3 Important Issues and Future Opportunities for Huge Wind Turbines -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.1.1 Visual Impact -- 3.1.2 Noise -- 3.1.3 Wildlife -- 3.1.4 Intermittent Energy Generation -- 3.2 Worldwide Wind Energy Forecast -- 3.2.1 Canada -- 3.2.2 Russia -- 3.2.3 India -- 3.2.4 United States of America -- 3.2.5 China -- 3.2.6 Germany -- 3.3 Increased Wind Penetrating Techniques -- 3.3.1 Energy Storage Systems -- 3.3.2 Advanced Forecasting Tools -- 3.3.3 Bucket Foundation. , 3.3.4 Advantages of Bucket Foundation -- 3.3.5 Limitations of Bucket Foundation -- 3.3.6 Monopile Foundation -- 3.3.7 Jacket Foundation -- 3.3.8 Floating Foundation -- 3.3.9 Tripod Foundation -- 3.4 India's Perspective for Wind Energy -- 3.4.1 Intermittency and Variability -- 3.4.2 Land Acquisition -- 3.4.3 Transmission Constraints -- 3.4.4 Limited Wind Resource Data -- 3.4.5 Financing Constraints -- 3.4.6 Environmental and Social Impacts -- 3.4.7 Policy and Regulatory Uncertainty -- 3.5 Progress of Technology -- 3.5.1 Larger and More Efficient Turbines -- 3.5.2 Advancements in Turbine Design -- 3.5.3 Improvements in Manufacturing and Installation -- 3.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 4 Wind Hybrid Power Technologies -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Types of Hybrid Power Systems -- 4.3 Wind Hybrid Power Technologies -- 4.3.1 Wind Diesel Hybrid Power Technology -- 4.3.2 Wind Solar Hybrid Power Technology (WSHPT) -- 4.3.3 Wind Hydrogen Hybrid Power Technology (WHHPT) -- 4.3.4 Wind-Hydro Hybrid Power Technology (WHHPT) -- 4.3.5 Wind-Photovoltaic (PV) Hybrid Power Technology -- 4.4 Summary -- References -- Chapter 5 Theories Based on Technological Advances for Wind Energy -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Theoretical Background -- 5.2.1 Basic Principles of Wind Energy Conversion -- 5.2.2 Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines -- 5.2.3 Control Systems for Wind Turbines -- 5.3 Theories Based on Technological Advances -- 5.3.1 Wind Turbine Design Theory -- 5.3.1.1 Rotor Blade Design Theory -- 5.3.1.2 Aerodynamic Design Theory -- 5.3.2 Power Control Theory -- 5.3.2.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking Theory -- 5.3.2.2 Load Control Theory -- 5.3.3 Wind Farm Layout Theory -- 5.3.3.1 Turbine Placement Theory -- 5.3.3.2 Wake Effect Theory -- 5.3.4 Grid Integration Theory -- 5.3.4.1 Power Quality Theory -- 5.3.4.2 Stability Theory. , 5.4 Advancements in Wind Energy Technologies -- 5.5 Future Research Directions -- 5.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 6 Wind Energy Hybrid Power Generation System with Hydrogen Storage -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Hydrogen Storage Systems -- 6.2.1 Solid-State Hydrogen Storage in Materials -- 6.3 Wind Energy Systems -- 6.4 Wind Energy Hybrid Power Generation System with Hydrogen Storage -- 6.4.1 Design and Optimization of a Wind Energy Hybrid Power Generation System with Hydrogen Storage -- 6.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 7 Technologies Based on Reusable Wind Turbine Blades -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Wind Power Generation and the Importance of Wind Turbine Blades -- 7.2.1 Global Demand for Clean and Sustainable Energy -- 7.2.2 Role of Wind Turbines in Wind Power Generation -- 7.2.3 Impact of Wind Turbine Blades on Performance and Viability -- 7.3 Conventional Wind Turbine Blade Materials and Limitations -- 7.3.1 Overview of Conventional Blade Materials -- 7.3.2 Limitations in Terms of Recyclability and Environmental Impact -- 7.4 Advancements in Materials Engineering for Reusable Wind Turbine Blades -- 7.4.1 Composite Materials in Blade Design -- 7.4.2 Bio-Based Resins for Sustainable Blades -- 7.4.3 Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Blade Production -- 7.5 Challenges in Implementing Reusable Blade Technologies -- 7.5.1 Structural Integrity of Reusable Blades -- 7.5.2 Fatigue Resistance and Durability -- 7.5.3 Manufacturing Scalability and Cost-Effectiveness -- 7.6 Implications of Reusable Wind Turbine Blades -- 7.6.1 Cost Reduction and Enhanced Energy Production -- 7.6.2 Environmental Benefits and Reduction of Carbon Emissions -- 7.6.3 Policy Frameworks and Industry Collaboration -- 7.7 Testing, Modeling, and Simulation for Reliable Reusable Blade Designs -- 7.7.1 Importance of Rigorous Testing. , 7.7.2 Modeling and Simulation Techniques for Design Optimization -- 7.8 Future Prospects and Research Directions -- 7.8.1 Interdisciplinary Approaches for Sustainable Innovation -- 7.8.2 Collaboration Among Researchers, Engineers, and Stakeholders -- 7.8.3 Potential Directions for Future Research -- 7.9 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8 Wind Turbine Assessment: A Step-by-Step Approach -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Analytic Hierarchy Strategy -- 8.3 Results and Discussion -- 8.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 9 Effect of Aerodynamics on Wind Turbine Design -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Air Properties Affecting Wind Turbines -- 9.3 Classical Blade Element Momentum Theory -- 9.4 Aerodynamic Performance Testing -- 9.4.1 Wind Tunnel Testing and Field Testing -- 9.4.2 Performance Testing of a Counter-Rotating Wind Turbine System -- 9.5 Effect of Aerodynamics on Wind Turbine Design Parameters -- 9.5.1 Solidity -- 9.5.2 Number of Blades -- 9.5.3 Different Ratios -- 9.5.3.1 Chord/Radius Ratio (c/R) -- 9.5.3.2 Height-to-Radius Ratio (H/R) -- 9.5.3.3 Blade Aspect Ratio (H/c) -- 9.5.4 Pitch -- 9.5.5 Strut Connection Point -- 9.5.6 Blade Reynolds Number (Re) -- 9.5.7 Strut Effects -- 9.5.8 Strut Arrangement -- 9.6 Wind Turbine Loads -- 9.7 Conclusions -- References -- Index -- Also of Interest -- EULA.

Note: Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Chapter 1 Introduction to Water Pollution -- 1.1 Pollution -- 1.2 What is Water Pollution? -- 1.3 Prevalence of Water Pollution -- 1.4 Categories of Water Pollution -- 1.4.1 Point Sources -- 1.4.2 Non-Point Sources -- 1.4.3 Transboundary Pollution -- 1.4.4 Problems Caused by Point and Non-Point Sources -- 1.5 Water Pollutants -- 1.5.1 Organic Pollutants -- 1.5.2 Inorganic Pollutants -- 1.5.3 Biological Pollutants -- 1.5.4 Radiological Pollutants -- 1.6 Kinds of Water Pollution -- 1.6.1 Groundwater Pollution -- 1.6.2 Domestic Water Pollution -- 1.6.3 River Water Pollution -- 1.6.4 Surface Water Pollution -- 1.7 Determination of Water Quality Parameters -- 1.7.1 pH -- 1.7.2 Color -- 1.7.3 Turbidity -- 1.7.4 Hardness -- 1.7.5 BOD -- 1.7.6 TDS -- 1.8 Sources of Water Pollution -- 1.8.1 Urbanization -- 1.8.2 Agriculture -- 1.8.3 Industrialization -- 1.8.4 Population Growth -- 1.8.5 Oil Spillage -- 1.9 Effects of Water Pollution on Humans and Animals -- 1.9.1 Diarrheal Diseases -- 1.9.2 Cholera -- 1.9.3 Microcystins -- 1.9.4 Sound Effects of Contamination of Water on Aquatic Animals -- 1.10 Prevention of Water Pollution -- 1.10.1 Strategies -- 1.10.1.1 Water Maintenance -- 1.10.1.2 Wastewater Treatment -- 1.10.1.3 Devices -- 1.10.1.4 Air Pollution Prevention -- 1.10.1.5 Organic Farming -- 1.10.1.6 Stormwater Management -- 1.10.1.7 Plastic Waste Reduction -- 1.10.1.8 Environmental Education -- 1.11 Control and Prevention of Water Pollution by Biotechnology -- 1.12 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2 Impact of Water Pollution & -- Perspective Techniques to Mitigate It: An Overview -- Graphical Abstract -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Causes of Water Pollution -- 2.2.1 Discharge -- 2.2.2 Oil Spill -- 2.2.3 Littering -- 2.2.4 Ship Demolition Waste -- 2.3 Effects of Water Pollution on Plant Growth. , 2.4 Techniques of Treating Water Pollution -- 2.4.1 Techniques -- 2.4.1.1 Biofiltration -- 2.4.1.2 Rapid Sand Filter -- 2.4.1.3 Adsorption -- 2.4.1.4 Magnetic Extraction -- 2.4.1.5 Membrane Filtration -- 2.4.1.6 Electrocoagulation -- 2.4.1.7 Activated Sludge -- 2.4.2 Oil Spillage -- 2.4.2.1 Skimming -- 2.4.2.2 Organoclays -- 2.4.2.3 Grease Traps -- 2.4.2.4 Chemical Dispersant/Emulsifier -- 2.4.2.5 In Situ Burning (ISB) -- 2.4.2.6 Magnetic-Nanomaterials -- 2.4.3 Halogenated Aromatic Hydrocarbon -- 2.4.3.1 Bioremediation -- 2.4.3.2 Photocatalytic Degradation -- 2.4.3.3 Electrokinetic Remediation -- 2.4.3.4 Green Nano Remediation -- 2.5 Removal of Pollutants Through Different Nanomaterial -- 2.5.1 Disinfection -- 2.5.1.1 Silver Nanoparticles -- 2.5.1.2 TiO2 Nanoparticles -- 2.5.1.3 Carbon Nano Tubes -- 2.5.2 Desalination -- 2.5.3 Heavy Metal and Ion Removal -- 2.5.4 Organic Pollutant Removal -- 2.5.5 CNTs -- 2.5.6 TiO2 Nanoparticles -- 2.5.7 Zero-Valent Iron -- 2.5.8 Other Nanomaterials -- 2.6 Discussion and Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 3 Pollution of Ground and Surface Waters with Agrochemicals -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 A Recounting of the Global Production and Consumption of Agrochemicals -- 3.2.1 Pesticides -- 3.2.2 Fertilizers -- 3.3 Characteristics of Agrochemicals -- 3.4 Occurrences and Levels of Pollution -- 3.4.1 Pollution of Groundwater -- 3.4.2 Pollution of Surface Waters -- 3.5 Fates of Agrochemicals in Ground and Surface Waters -- 3.6 Emerging Views and Perspectives -- 3.7 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 4 Fecal Waste Drives Antimicrobial Resistance: Source Tracking, Wastewater Discriminant Analysis and Management -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Antibiotics/ARB/ARGs: Source Tracking -- 4.3 Fecal Pollution and the Public Health Risks -- 4.3.1 Public Health Risks and Environmental Impacts. , 4.4 Fecal Indicator Bacteria and Discriminant Analysis -- 4.5 Management Strategies to Combat Antibiotic Resistance -- 4.5.1 Technologies Towards ARB/ARGs Removal from Wastewater -- 4.6 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 5 Harmful Effects of Water Pollution -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Physical Factors -- 5.2.1 Temperature -- 5.2.2 Heat -- 5.2.3 Suspended Solids -- 5.2.4 Colour -- 5.3 Chemical Factors -- 5.3.1 Lowering of Dissolved Oxygen -- 5.3.2 Oxygen Demanding Material in Water Bodies -- 5.3.2.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) -- 5.3.2.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) -- 5.3.3 Eutrophication -- 5.3.4 Chemicals Affecting Human Health -- 5.3.4.1 Fluoride -- 5.3.4.2 Nitrate -- 5.3.4.3 Petrochemicals and Chlorinated Solvents -- 5.3.4.4 Pesticides -- 5.3.5 Acidity (pH) -- 5.3.6 Nitrification -- 5.3.7 Acid Rain -- 5.3.8 Characteristics of Pollutants in Stationary Water Bodies -- 5.3.9 Nanoparticles -- 5.3.10 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) -- 5.3.11 Heavy Metals -- 5.3.11.1 Mercury -- 5.3.11.2 Arsenic -- 5.3.11.3 Lead -- 5.3.12 Salts -- 5.3.13 Radioactive Materials -- 5.3.14 Oils and Grease -- 5.3.15 Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDC) -- 5.4 Biological Factors -- 5.4.1 Ecology of Stationary Water Bodies -- 5.4.2 Algal Blooms -- 5.4.3 Pathogenic Organisms -- 5.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 6 Parasites: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Pathogens -- 6.2 Method of Analysis -- 6.2.1 Sampling Preparations and Procedures -- 6.2.2 Sampling for Parasites -- 6.3 Methods to Find Concentration of Parasites -- 6.3.1 Sedgwick Rafter Method -- 6.3.2 Method of Centrifuge -- 6.3.3 Method of Using Millipore Filter -- 6.4 Procedures for Enumeration of Parasites -- 6.4.1 Standardizing of Tiles Whipple Micron Meter -- 6.4.1.1 Reporting in Cubic Standard Units. , 6.4.2 Drop Method for Counting -- 6.5 Waterborne Protozoan Parasites -- 6.6 Protozoan Parasite Testing in Water -- 6.7 Waterborne Helminths -- 6.8 Water Treatment -- 6.8.1 Chemical Treatment -- 6.8.1.1 Chlorination -- 6.8.1.2 Method of Chloramination -- 6.8.1.3 Method of Applying Chlorine Dioxide -- 6.8.1.4 Ozonation -- 6.8.2 Physical Treatment -- 6.8.2.1 Treatment Using the Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation -- 6.8.3 Treatment Using Mechanical Method -- 6.8.3.1 Method of Membrane Filter -- 6.8.3.2 Radiation -- 6.9 Nanotechnology -- 6.9.1 Silver (Ag) -- 6.9.2 Chitosan -- 6.9.3 Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) -- 6.9.4 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) -- 6.9.5 Fullerenes -- 6.9.6 Nanotubes of Carbon -- 6.10 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7 Oils: Source, Method of Analysis and Treatment -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Oils Causing Pollution and Their Sources -- 7.3 Method of Analysis -- 7.4 Treatment -- 7.4.1 Treatment Requirements -- 7.4.2 Waste Reduction -- 7.4.3 Management of Cutting Fluids -- 7.4.4 Overview of Treatment Methods -- 7.4.5 Physical Treatment -- 7.4.5.1 Gravity Separation Systems (Separators) -- 7.4.5.2 Hydrocyclones -- 7.4.5.3 Air Flotation -- 7.4.5.4 Membrane Filtration -- 7.4.5.5 Activated Carbon Adsorption -- 7.4.5.6 Filtration (Membranes, Meshes, and Fibers) -- 7.4.5.7 Evaporation -- 7.4.6 Chemical Treatment -- 7.4.6.1 Coagulation and Flocculation -- 7.4.6.2 Electrocoagulation -- 7.4.6.3 Oxidation Technologies -- 7.4.7 Biological Treatments -- 7.4.8 Latest Treatment Trends -- 7.4.8.1 Biological Treatment -- 7.4.8.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) -- 7.4.8.3 Membrane Separation Technology -- 7.4.8.4 Coagulation/Flocculation Technology -- 7.4.8.5 Sorption Technology -- 7.4.9 Treatment Costs -- 7.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8 Phosphate: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Sources of Phosphate Pollution in Water. , 8.3 Method of Analysis -- 8.4 Phosphate Removal Treatment -- 8.4.1 Phosphate Removal through Lanthanum and Lanthanum Composite -- 8.4.2 Phosphate Removal by Nanomaterial and Nano Composite -- 8.4.3 Phosphate Removal through Iron and Iron Composite -- 8.4.4 Phosphate Removal by Metal Composite -- 8.4.5 Phosphate Removal by Zirconium and Its Composite -- 8.4.6 Phosphate Removal by Biochar and Biochar-Based Composite -- 8.4.7 Phosphate Removal by Aluminum Oxide Its Composite-Based Absorbent -- 8.4.8 Phosphate Removal by Calcium -- 8.4.9 Phosphate Removal by Organic Metal Framework -- 8.4.10 Phosphate Removal by Waste-Based Adsorbent -- 8.4.11 Phosphate Removal by Clay and Clay Composites -- 8.4.12 Phosphate Removal by Bioremediation -- 8.4.13 Phosphate Removal by Natural Polymer and Its Composite -- 8.4.14 Phosphate Removal by Advanced Methods -- 8.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9 Endocrine Disruptors: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.1.1 Definition of Endocrine Disruptors -- 9.1.2 Main Endocrine Disruptors -- 9.1.2.1 Classification Based on the EU Regulations for REACH -- 9.1.2.2 Other Classifications -- 9.1.3 Human Exposure to EDCs -- 9.1.4 Impact of EDCs on Human Health -- 9.2 Parabens: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment -- 9.2.1 Sources -- 9.2.2 Method of Analysis -- 9.2.3 Treatment of Parabens -- 9.3 Alkylphenol Ethoxylates: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment -- 9.3.1 Sources -- 9.3.2 Method of Analysis -- 9.3.3 Treatment -- 9.4 Bisphenols: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment -- 9.4.1 Sources -- 9.4.2 Method of Analysis -- 9.4.3 Treatment -- 9.5 Phthalates: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment -- 9.5.1 Sources -- 9.5.2 Analysis -- 9.5.3 Treatment of Phthalates -- 9.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10 Water Pollution by Heavy Metals and Their Impact on Human Health. , Abbreviations.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Contents -- About the Editors -- Chapter 1: Analytical Methods for the Determination of Heavy Metals in Water -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Total Concentration and Speciation Analysis -- 1.3 Health and Legislation -- 1.4 Sample Preparation for Elemental Analysis of Heavy Metals -- 1.4.1 Solid-Phase Extraction -- 1.4.1.1 Classic Solid-Phase Extraction -- 1.4.1.1.1 Modern Sorbents for Classic Solid-Phase Extraction -- 1.4.1.1.2 Micro Solid-Phase Extraction -- 1.4.1.2 Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction -- 1.4.1.2.1 Dispersion Techniques -- 1.4.1.2.2 Modern Sorbents for Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction and Dispersive Micro-Solid Phase Extraction -- Nanostructured Materials -- Hybrid Materials -- 1.4.1.3 Magnetic Solid-Phase Extraction -- 1.4.1.3.1 Advanced Magnetic Sorbents -- 1.4.2 Liquid-Liquid Extraction -- 1.4.2.1 Modern Solvents Used in Liquid-Liquid Extraction -- 1.4.2.1.1 Non-ionic or Zwitterionic Surfactants -- 1.4.2.1.2 Ionic Liquids -- 1.4.2.1.3 Deep Eutectic Solvents -- 1.4.2.2 Novel Liquid-Liquid Microextraction Techniques -- 1.4.2.2.1 Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction Techniques -- 1.4.2.2.2 In-Situ Phase Separation Techniques -- 1.4.2.2.3 Cloud Point Extraction -- 1.4.2.2.4 Non-dispersive Microextraction Techniques -- 1.4.2.3 Liquid-Liquid Extraction in Flow Analysis -- 1.5 Analytical Techniques for Heavy Metal Detection -- 1.5.1 Spectroscopic Techniques -- 1.5.1.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy -- 1.5.1.2 Atomic Fluorescence Spectrometry -- 1.5.1.3 Atomic Emission Spectrometry -- 1.5.1.4 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry -- 1.5.1.4.1 Single Particle Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry -- 1.5.1.5 Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy -- 1.5.1.6 X-Ray Fluorescence -- 1.5.1.7 UV-Vis Spectrophotometry -- 1.5.2 Electrochemical Techniques -- 1.5.2.1 Potentiostatic Techniques. , 1.5.2.1.1 Amperometry -- 1.5.2.1.2 Chronocoulometry -- 1.5.2.1.3 Voltammetric Techniques -- 1.5.2.2 Galvanostatic Stripping Chronopotentiometry -- 1.5.2.3 Electrochemiluminescence -- 1.5.3 Other Methods -- 1.5.3.1 Ion Chromatography -- 1.5.3.2 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy -- 1.5.3.3 Bio Methods -- 1.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 2: Olive-Oil Waste for the Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Olive Tree Pruning as Biosorbent of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions -- 2.2.1 Characterization -- 2.2.2 Biosorption Tests -- 2.3 Olive Stone as Biosorbent of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions -- 2.3.1 Characterization -- 2.3.2 Biosorption Tests -- 2.4 Olive Pomace and Olive-Cake as Biosorbents of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions -- 2.4.1 Characterization -- 2.4.2 Biosorption Tests -- 2.5 Other Valorization Opportunities for Olive-Oil Waste -- 2.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3: Metal Oxide Composites for Heavy Metal Ions Removal -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Issues in Environmental Remediation -- 3.3 Different Types of Magnetic Sorbents -- 3.3.1 Iron Oxide Modified Nanoparticle -- 3.3.2 Zeolite -- 3.3.3 Silica -- 3.3.4 Polymer Functionalization -- 3.3.5 Chitosan and Alginate -- 3.3.6 Activated Carbon -- 3.3.7 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) and Graphene -- 3.3.8 Agricultural Wastes -- 3.4 Case Studies -- 3.4.1 Characterization -- 3.4.2 Factors Affecting Sorption Processes -- 3.4.3 Agro-Based Magnetic Biosorbents Recovery and Reusability -- 3.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional Materials for Heavy Metal Removal -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Heavy Metal Ions Removal Mechanism -- 4.2.1 Surface Complexation -- 4.2.2 Van der Waals Interaction -- 4.2.3 Ion Exchange -- 4.3 Different Types of Two-Dimensional Material for Heavy Metal Removal. , 4.3.1 Graphene-Based Two-Dimensional Materials -- 4.3.1.1 Structure -- 4.3.1.2 Graphene-Based Materials for Heavy Metal Removal -- 4.3.2 Dichalcogenides -- 4.3.2.1 Structure -- 4.3.2.2 Molybdenum Disulfide for Heavy Metal Removal -- 4.3.3 MXenes -- 4.3.3.1 Structure -- 4.3.3.2 MXenes for Heavy Metal Removal -- 4.3.4 Clay Minerals -- 4.3.4.1 Structure -- 4.3.4.2 Clay Mineral for Heavy Metal Removal -- 4.3.5 Layered Double Hydroxides -- 4.3.5.1 Structure -- 4.3.5.2 Layered Double Hydroxides for Heavy Metal Removal -- 4.3.6 Layered Zeolites -- 4.3.6.1 Structure -- 4.3.6.2 Layered Zeolites for Heavy Metal Removal -- 4.3.7 Other Two-Dimensional Materials -- 4.4 Heavy Metal Removal Other than Adsorption -- 4.5 Conclusions and Perspectives -- Appendix: List of Two-Dimensional Materials that Mentioned in this Chapter for Heavy Metal Removal and their Removal Capacities -- References -- Chapter 5: Membranes for Heavy Metals Removal -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Electrodialysis -- 5.2.1 Electrodialysis Applied to Metal Removal -- 5.2.2 Principle -- 5.2.3 Evaluation and Control Parameters -- 5.2.4 Use in Electroplating Industry -- 5.2.4.1 Zinc -- 5.2.4.2 Chromium -- 5.2.4.3 Copper -- 5.2.4.4 Nickel -- 5.2.5 Use in Mining and Mineral Processing Industry -- 5.2.6 Final Considerations -- References -- Chapter 6: Metal Oxides for Removal of Heavy Metal Ions -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Adsorption Methods -- 6.3 Metal Oxides for the Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Water -- 6.3.1 Titanium Dioxide -- 6.3.2 Manganese Dioxide -- 6.3.3 Iron Oxide -- 6.3.4 Aluminum Oxide -- 6.3.5 Binary Metal Oxides -- 6.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 7: Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchange Materials for Heavy Metal Removal from Water -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Ion Exchange Process -- 7.3 Ion Exchange Materials -- 7.3.1 Inorganic Ion Exchangers -- 7.3.2 Organic Ion Exchangers. , 7.4 Heavy Metal Removal with Ion Exchange Materials -- 7.4.1 Lead (II) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers -- 7.4.2 Mercury (II) Removal from Waste Water with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers -- 7.4.3 Cadmium (II) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers -- 7.4.4 Nickel (II) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers -- 7.4.5 Chromium (III, VI) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers -- 7.4.6 Copper (II) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers -- 7.4.7 Zinc (II) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers -- 7.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8: Low-Cost Technology for Heavy Metal Cleaning from Water -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Sources and Impact -- 8.3 Different Routes of Contamination -- 8.4 Conventional Water Treatment Methods -- 8.4.1 Preliminary Treatment -- 8.4.2 Secondary Water Treatment -- 8.4.3 Tertiary Water Treatment -- 8.4.4 Membrane Filtration -- 8.5 Advanced Technology for Heavy Metal Ion Removal -- 8.5.1 Nano-Adsorption -- 8.5.2 Molecularly-Imprinted Polymers -- 8.5.3 Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH) and Covalent-Organic Framework (COF) -- 8.5.4 Emerging Membrane Technologies -- 8.6 Low-Cost and Biotechnological Approaches -- 8.6.1 Biosorption -- 8.6.2 Microbial Remediation -- 8.6.3 Biotechnological Strategies -- 8.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9: Use of Nanomaterials for Heavy Metal Remediation -- 9.1 General Introduction -- 9.2 Heavy Metals in the Environment -- 9.2.1 Characteristics of Selected Heavy Metals -- 9.3 Wastewater Treatment -- 9.4 Nanomaterials -- 9.4.1 Clay Minerals -- 9.4.2 Layered Double Hydroxide and Their Mixed-Oxides Counterparts -- 9.4.3 Zeolites -- 9.4.4 Two-dimensional Early Transition Metal Carbides and Carbonitrides -- 9.4.5 Metal Based Nanoparticles. , 9.4.5.1 Zero-valent Metals -- 9.4.5.2 Metal Oxides -- 9.4.6 Carbon-based Materials -- 9.4.6.1 Carbon Nanotubes -- 9.4.6.2 Fullerenes -- 9.4.6.3 Graphene -- 9.4.6.4 Graphene Oxide -- 9.4.6.5 Reduced Graphene Oxide -- 9.4.6.6 Graphitic Carbon Nitride -- 9.4.7 Metal Organic Frameworks -- 9.5 Disadvantages of Using Nanomaterials -- 9.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10: Ecoengineered Approaches for the Remediation of Polluted River Ecosystems -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Occurrence of Pollutants, Emerging Contaminants and Their Riverine Fates -- 10.3 Hazardous Effects of Water Contaminants on Aquatic and Terrestrial Biota -- 10.4 Historic Concepts of River Bioremediation -- 10.5 Physico-chemical River Remediation Methods -- 10.6 Eco-engineered River Water Remediation Technologies -- 10.6.1 Plant Based River Remediation Systems -- 10.6.1.1 Constructed Wetlands -- 10.6.1.2 Ecological Floating Wetlands, Beds and Islands -- 10.6.1.3 Eco-tanks -- 10.6.1.4 Bio-racks -- 10.6.2 Microorganisms Based River Remediation Systems -- 10.6.2.1 Biofilm Based Eco-engineered Treatment Systems -- 10.6.2.1.1 Bio-filters in River Bioremediation -- 10.6.2.2 Periphyton Based Technologies -- 10.7 In Situ Emerging Integrated Systems for the River Bioremediation -- 10.8 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 11: Ballast Water Definition, Components, Aquatic Invasive Species, Control and Management and Treatment Technologies -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Component of Ballast Water -- 11.3 Aquatic Invasive Species -- 11.4 The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments -- 11.5 IMO Standards for Ballast Water Quality -- 11.6 Management Options of Ballast Water -- 11.7 Ballast Water Treatment Technologies -- 11.7.1 Mechanical Treatment -- 11.7.2 Physical Treatment -- 11.7.2.1 Ultrasound and Cavitation. , 11.7.3 Chemical Treatment.

Note: Cover -- Half-Title Page -- Series Page -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- 1 Toxic Geogenic Contaminants in Serpentinitic Geological Systems: Occurrence, Behavior, Exposure Pathways, and Human Health Risks -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Serpentinitic Geological Systems -- 1.2.1 Nature, Occurrence, and Geochemistry -- 1.2.2 Occurrence and Behavior of Toxic Contaminants -- 1.3 Human Exposure Pathways -- 1.3.1 Occupational Exposure -- 1.3.2 Non-Occupational Exposure Routes -- 1.4 Human Health Risks and Their Mitigation -- 1.4.1 Health Risks -- 1.4.2 Mitigating Human Exposure and Health Risks -- 1.5 Future Perspectives -- 1.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 2 Benefits of Geochemistry and Its Impact on Human Health -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 General Overview of Geochemistry and Human Health -- 2.2.1 Types of Geochemistry -- 2.2.2 Some Beneficial Effect of Some Mineral With Health Benefits -- 2.2.3 Application of Geochemistry on Human Health -- 2.3 Conclusion and Recommendations -- References -- 3 Applications of Geochemistry in Livestock: Health and Nutritional Perspective -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 General and Global Perspective About Geochemistry in Livestock -- 3.3 Types of Geochemistry and Their Numerous Benefits -- 3.3.1 Analytical Geochemistry -- 3.3.2 Isotope Geochemistry -- 3.3.3 Low Temperature Geochemistry -- 3.3.4 Organic and Petroleum Geochemistry -- 3.4 Application of Geochemistry in Livestock -- 3.5 Geochemistry and Animal Health -- 3.6 General Overview of Geochemistry in Livestock's Merits of Geochemistry/Essential Minerals in Livestocks -- 3.6.1 Specific Examples of Authors That Have Used Essential Minerals in Livestock -- 3.6.2 Livestock in Relation to Geominerals -- 3.6.3 Trace Minerals Parallel Importance in Livestock -- 3.6.4 Heavy Metals Impact Livestock -- 3.7 Conclusion and Recommendations. , References -- 4 Application in Geochemistry Toward the Achievement of a Sustainable Agricultural Science -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 General Overview on the Utilization of Geochemistry and Their Wide Application on Agriculture -- 4.2.1 Classification -- 4.2.2 Chemical Composition of Rocks -- 4.2.3 Effect of Some Beneficial Minerals in Agriculture -- 4.2.4 Beneficial Mineral Nutrients That are Crucial to the Development of Plants -- 4.3 Role of Geochemistry in Agriculture -- 4.4 Geochemical Effects of Heavy Metals on Crops Health -- 4.5 Conclusion and Recommendations -- References -- 5 Geochemistry, Extent of Pollution, and Ecological Impact of Heavy Metal Pollutants in Soil -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Material and Methods -- 5.2.1 Review Process -- 5.2.2 Ecological Risk Index -- 5.3 Toxic Heavy Metal and Their Impact to the Ecosystems -- 5.3.1 Arsenic -- 5.3.2 Cadmium -- 5.3.3 Chromium -- 5.3.4 Copper -- 5.3.5 Lead -- 5.3.6 Nickel -- 5.3.7 Zinc -- 5.4 Metal Pollution in Soil Across the Globe -- 5.5 Ecological and Human Health Risk Impacts of Heavy Metals -- 5.6 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Isotope Geochemistry -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Basic Definitions -- 6.2.1 The Notation -- 6.2.2 The Fractionation Factor -- 6.2.3 Isotope Fractionation -- 6.2.4 Mass Dependent and Independent Fractionations -- 6.3 Application of Traditional Isotopes in Geochemistry -- 6.3.1 Geothermometer -- 6.3.2 Isotopes in Biological System -- 6.3.3 Isotopes in Archaeology -- 6.3.4 Isotopes in Fossils and the Earliest Life -- 6.3.5 Isotopes in Hydrothermal and Ore Deposits -- 6.4 Non-Traditional Isotopes in Geochemistry -- 6.4.1 Application in Tracing of Source -- 6.4.2 Application in Process Tracing -- 6.4.3 Biological Cycling -- 6.5 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Environmental Geochemistry -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Overview of the Environmental Geochemistry -- 7.3 Conclusions. , 7.4 Abbreviations -- Acknowledgment -- References -- 8 Medical Geochemistry -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 The Evolution of Geochemistry -- 8.3 This Science has Expanded Considerably to Become Distinct Branches -- 8.3.1 Cosmochemistry -- 8.3.2 The Economic Importance of Geochemistry -- 8.3.3 Analytical Geochemistry -- 8.3.4 Geochemistry of Radioisotopes -- 8.3.5 Medical Geochemistry and Human Health -- 8.3.6 Environmental Health and Safety -- 8.4 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Inorganic Geochemistry -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Elements and the Earth -- 9.2.1 Iron -- 9.2.2 Oxygen -- 9.2.3 Silicon -- 9.2.4 Magnesium -- 9.3 Geological Minerals -- 9.3.1 Quartz -- 9.3.2 Feldspar -- 9.3.3 Amphibole -- 9.3.4 Pyroxene -- 9.3.5 Olivine -- 9.3.6 Clay Minerals -- 9.3.7 Kaolinite -- 9.3.8 Bentonite, Montmorillonite, Vermiculite, and Biotite -- 9.4 Characterization Techniques -- 9.4.1 Powder X-Ray Diffraction -- 9.4.2 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectra -- 9.4.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectra -- 9.4.4 Electron Probe Micro-Analysis -- 9.4.5 Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry -- 9.4.6 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy -- 9.4.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy Analysis -- 9.4.8 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis -- 9.5 Conclusion -- References -- 10 Introduction and Scope of Geochemistry -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Periodic Table and Electronic Configuration -- 10.2 Periodic Properties -- 10.2.1 Ionization Enthalpy -- 10.2.2 Electron Affinity -- 10.2.3 Electro-Negativity -- 10.3 Chemical Bonding -- 10.3.1 Ionic Bond -- 10.3.2 Covalent Bond -- 10.3.3 Metallic Bond -- 10.3.4 Hydrogen Bond -- 10.3.5 Van der Waals Forces -- 10.4 Geochemical Classification and Distribution of Elements -- 10.4.1 Lithophiles -- 10.4.2 Siderophiles -- 10.4.3 Chalcophiles -- 10.4.4 Atmophiles -- 10.4.5 Biophiles -- 10.5 Chemical Composition of the Earth -- 10.6 Classification of Earth's Layers. , 10.6.1 Based on Chemical Composition -- 10.6.2 Based on Physical Properties -- 10.7 Spheres of the Earth -- 10.7.1 Geosphere/Lithosphere -- 10.7.2 Hydrosphere -- 10.7.3 Biosphere -- 10.7.4 Atmosphere -- 10.7.5 Troposphere -- 10.7.6 Stratosphere -- 10.7.7 Mesosphere -- 10.7.8 Thermosphere and Ionosphere -- 10.7.9 Exosphere -- 10.8 Sub-Disciplines of Geochemistry -- 10.9 Scope of Geochemistry -- 10.10 Conclusion -- References -- Index -- EULA.

Note: Cover -- Half-Title Page -- Series Page -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- 1 Natural Polysaccharides From Aloe vera L. Gel (Aloe barbadensis Miller): Processing Techniques and Analytical Methods -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.1.1 Gel Composition from A. vera -- 1.2 Applications of A. vera Mucilaginous Gel or Fractions -- 1.3 Aloe vera Gel Processing -- 1.3.1 Obtaining Polysaccharide Fraction or Acemannan -- 1.4 Analytical Methods Applied -- 1.4.1 Total Carbohydrates, Oligosaccharides, Acemannan and Free Sugars -- 1.4.2 Analytical Techniques -- 1.4.2.1 Chromatography Analysis -- 1.4.2.2 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) -- 1.4.2.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy -- 1.4.2.4 Mass Spectrometry -- 1.4.2.5 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy -- 1.4.2.6 Comprehensive Microarray Polymer Profiling -- 1.5 Conclusion -- References -- 2 Cell Wall Polysaccharides -- 2.1 Introduction to Cell Wall -- 2.2 Plant Cell Wall Polysaccharides -- 2.2.1 Cellulose -- 2.2.2 Hemicellulose -- 2.2.2.1 Xyloglucan -- 2.2.2.2 Xylans -- 2.2.2.3 Mannans -- 2.2.3 Callose -- 2.2.4 Pectic Polysaccharides -- 2.2.4.1 Homogalacturonan (HG) -- 2.2.4.2 Arabinan -- 2.3 Algal Cell Wall Polysaccharides -- 2.3.1 Alginates -- 2.3.2 Sulfated Galactans -- 2.3.3 Fucoidans -- 2.4 Fungal Cell Wall Polysaccharides -- 2.4.1 Glucan -- 2.4.2 Chitin and Chitosan -- 2.5 Bacterial Cell Wall Polysaccharides -- 2.5.1 Peptidoglycan -- 2.5.2 Lipopolysaccharides -- References -- 3 Marine Polysaccharides: Properties and Applications -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Polysaccharide Origins -- 3.3 Properties -- 3.3.1 Cellulose -- 3.3.2 Chitosan -- 3.3.3 Alginate -- 3.3.4 Carrageenan -- 3.3.5 Agar -- 3.3.6 Porphyran -- 3.3.7 Fucoidan -- 3.3.8 Ulvan -- 3.3.9 Exopolysaccharides From Microalgae -- 3.4 Applications of Polysaccharides -- 3.4.1 Biomedical Applications -- 3.4.1.1 Cellulose -- 3.4.1.2 Chitosan. , 3.4.1.3 Alginate -- 3.4.2 Food Applications -- 3.4.2.1 Cellulose -- 3.4.2.2 Chitosan -- 3.4.2.3 Alginates -- 3.4.2.4 Carrageenan -- 3.4.2.5 Agar -- 3.4.3 Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Applications -- 3.4.3.1 Cellulose -- 3.4.3.2 Chitosan -- 3.4.3.3 Alginate -- 3.4.3.4 Carrageenan -- 3.4.3.5 Porphyran -- 3.4.3.6 Fucoidan -- 3.4.4 Agriculture -- 3.5 Conclusions -- References -- 4 Seaweed Polysaccharides: Structure, Extraction and Applications -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.1.1 Agar -- 4.1.2 Carrageenan -- 4.1.3 Alginate (Alginic Acid, Algin) -- 4.1.4 Fucoidan -- 4.1.5 Laminaran -- 4.1.6 Ulvan -- 4.2 Conclusion -- References -- 5 Agars: Properties and Applications -- 5.1 History and Origin of Agar -- 5.1.1 Agarophytes Used in Agar Manufacturing -- 5.2 Physical Properties of Agar Producing Seaweeds -- 5.3 Agar Manufacturing -- 5.3.1 Types of Agar Manufacturing -- 5.3.1.1 Freeze-Thaw Method -- 5.3.1.2 Syneresis Method -- 5.4 Structure of Agar -- 5.5 Heterogeneity of Agar -- 5.6 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Agar -- 5.7 Chemical Characteristics of Agar -- 5.8 Factors Influencing the Characteristics of Agar -- 5.8.1 Techniques to Analyze the Fine Chemical Structure of Agar -- 5.8.2 Synergies and Antagonisms of Agar Gels -- 5.9 Uses of Agar in Various Sectors -- 5.9.1 Applications of Agar in Food Industry -- 5.9.2 Application of Agar in Harvesting Insects and Worms -- 5.9.3 Vegetable Tissue Culture Formulations -- 5.9.4 Culture Media for Microbes -- 5.9.5 Industrial Applications of Agar -- 5.10 Conclusion and Discussion -- References -- 6 Biopolysaccharides: Properties and Applications -- 6.1 Structure and Classification of Biopolysaccharides -- 6.1.1 Structure -- 6.1.2 Classification -- 6.1.3 Structural Characterization Techniques -- 6.2 Uses and Applications of Biopolysaccharides -- 6.2.1 Functional Fibers -- 6.2.2 Biomedicine. , 6.2.2.1 Tissue Engineering -- 6.2.2.2 Wound Healing -- 6.2.2.3 Drug Loading and Delivery -- 6.2.2.4 Therapeutics -- 6.2.3 Cosmetics -- 6.2.4 Foods and Food Ingredients -- 6.2.5 Biofuels -- 6.2.6 Wastewater Treatment -- 6.2.7 Textiles -- 6.3 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Chitosan Derivatives: Properties and Applications -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Properties of Chitosan Derivatives -- 7.2.1 Physiochemical Properties -- 7.2.2 Functional Properties -- 7.2.3 Biological Properties of Chitosan -- 7.3 Applications of Chitosan Derivatives -- 7.3.1 Anticancer Agents -- 7.3.2 Bone Tissue Material Formation -- 7.3.3 Wound Healing, Tissue Regeneration and Antimicrobial Resistance -- 7.3.4 Drug Delivery -- 7.3.5 Chromatographic Separations -- 7.3.6 Waste Management -- 7.3.7 Food Industry -- 7.3.8 In Cosmetics -- 7.3.9 In Paint as Antifouling Coatings -- 7.4 Conclusions -- Acknowledgement -- References -- 8 Green Seaweed Polysaccharides Inventory of Nador Lagoon in North East Morocco -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Nador Lagoon: Situation and Characteristics -- 8.3 Seaweed -- 8.4 Polysaccharides in Seaweed -- 8.5 Algae Polysaccharides in Nador Lagoon's Seaweed -- 8.5.1 C. prolifera -- 8.5.1.1 Sulfated Galactans -- 8.5.2 U. rigida & -- E. intestinalis -- 8.5.2.1 Ulvan -- 8.5.3 C. adhaerens, C. bursa, C. tomentosum -- 8.5.3.1 Sulfated Arabinans -- 8.5.3.2 Sulfated Arabinogalactans -- 8.5.3.3 Mannans -- 8.6 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Salep Glucomannan: Properties and Applications -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Production -- 9.3 Composition and Physicochemical Structure -- 9.4 Rheological Properties -- 9.5 Purification and Deacetylation -- 9.6 Food Applications -- 9.6.1 Beverage -- 9.6.2 Ice Cream and Emulsion Stabilizing -- 9.6.3 Edible Film/Coating -- 9.6.4 Gelation -- 9.7 Health Benefits -- 9.8 Conclusions and Future Trends -- References. , 10 Exudate Tree Gums: Properties and Applications -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Gum Arabic -- 10.1.2 Gum Karaya -- 10.1.3 Gum Kondagogu -- 10.1.4 Gum Ghatti -- 10.1.5 Gum Tragacanth -- 10.1.6 Gum Olibanum -- 10.2 Nanobiotechnology Applications -- 10.3 Minor Tree Gums -- 10.4 Conclusions -- Acknowledgment -- References -- 11 Cellulose and its Derivatives: Properties and Applications -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Main Raw Materials -- 11.3 Composition and Chemical Structure of Lignocellulosic Materials -- 11.4 Cellulose: Chemical Backbone and Crystalline Formats -- 11.5 Cellulose Extraction -- 11.5.1 Mechanical Methods -- 11.5.2 Chemical Methods -- 11.6 Cellulose Products and its Derivatives -- 11.7 Main Applications -- 11.8 Conclusion -- References -- 12 Starch and its Derivatives: Properties and Applications -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Starch -- 12.2.1 Size, Morphology and Crystallinity of Starch Granules -- 12.2.2 Physical Properties due to Associated Lipids, Proteins and Phosphorus With Starch Granules -- 12.2.3 Solubility and Swelling Capacity of Starch -- 12.2.4 Gelatinization and Retrogradation of Starch -- 12.2.5 Birefringence and Glass Transition Temperature of Starch -- 12.2.6 Rheological and Thermal Properties of Starch -- 12.2.7 Transmittance and Opacity of Starch -- 12.2.8 Melt Processability of Starch -- 12.3 Modification of Starch -- 12.3.1 Physical Modification of Starch -- 12.3.2 Chemical Modification of Starch -- 12.3.3 Dual Modification of Starch -- 12.3.4 Enzymatic Modification of Starch -- 12.3.5 Genetic Modification of Starch -- 12.4 Application of Starch and its Derivatives -- 12.4.1 In Food Industry -- 12.4.2 In Paper Industry -- 12.4.3 Starch as Binders -- 12.4.4 In Detergent Products -- 12.4.5 As Biodegradable Thermoplastic Materials or Bioplastics. , 12.4.6 In Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries -- 12.4.7 As Industrial Raw Materials -- 12.4.8 As Adsorbents for Environmental Applications -- 12.4.9 As Food Packaging Materials -- 12.4.10 In Drug Delivery -- 12.4.11 As Antimicrobial Films and Coatings -- 12.4.12 In Advanced Functional Materials -- 12.5 Conclusion -- References -- 13 Crystallization of Polysaccharides -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Principles of Crystallization of Polysaccharides -- 13.3 Techniques for Crystallinity Measurement -- 13.4 Crystallization Behavior of Polysaccharides -- 13.4.1 Cellulose -- 13.4.2 Chitosan and Chitin -- 13.4.3 Starch -- 13.5 Polymer/Polysaccharide Crystalline Nanocomposites -- 13.6 Conclusion -- References -- 14 Polysaccharides as Novel Materials for Tissue Engineering Applications -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Types of Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering -- 14.3 Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering -- 14.4 Polysaccharide-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering -- 14.4.1 Alginate-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.2 Chitosan-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.3 Cellulose-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.4 Dextran and Pullulan-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.5 Starch-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.6 Xanthan-Based Scaffolds -- 14.4.7 Glycosaminoglycans-Based Scaffolds -- 14.5 Current Challenges and Future Perspectives -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 15 Structure and Solubility of Polysaccharides -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 Polysaccharide Structure and Solubility in Water -- 15.3 Solubility and Molecular Weight -- 15.4 Solubility and Branching -- 15.5 Polysaccharide Solutions -- 15.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 16 Polysaccharides: An Efficient Tool for Fabrication of Carbon Nanomaterials -- 16.1 Introduction -- 16.2 Aerogels -- 16.2.1 Plant and Bacterial Cellulose -- 16.2.2 Carbon Derived From Nanocrystalline Cellulose of Plant Origin. , 16.2.3 Carbon Aerogels Produced From Bacterial Cellulose.

Note: Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Transition Metal Oxides in Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Processes Utilizing Transition Metal Oxides -- 1.2.1 Photocatalysis -- 1.2.2 Photoelectrocatalysis -- 1.2.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting -- 1.3 Transition Metal Oxides in Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Processes -- 1.3.1 Photocatalysis and Photoelectrocatalysis -- 1.3.1.1 TiO2 -- 1.3.1.2 α-Fe2O3 -- 1.3.1.3 CuO/Cu2O -- 1.3.2 Thermochemical Water Splitting -- 1.3.2.1 Fe3O4/FeO Redox Pair -- 1.3.2.2 CeO2/Ce2O3 and CeO/CeO2-ä Redox Pairs -- 1.3.2.3 ZnO/Zn Redox Pair -- 1.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives -- References -- Chapter 2 Catalytic Conversion Involving Hydrogen from Lignin -- List of Abbreviations -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Background of Bio-Refinery and Lignin -- 2.1.2 Lignin as an Alternate Source of Energy -- 2.1.3 Lignin Isolation Process -- 2.2 Catalytic Conversion of Lignin -- 2.2.1 Lignin Reductive Depolymerization into Aromatic Monomers -- 2.2.2 Catalytic Hydrodeoxydation (HDO) of Lignin -- 2.2.3 Hydrodeoxydation (HDO) of Lignin-Derived-Bio-Oil -- Summary and Outlook -- References -- Chapter 3 Solar-Hydrogen Coupling Hybrid Systems for Green Energy -- 3.1 Concept of Green Sources and Green Storage -- 3.2 Coupling of Green to Green -- 3.3 Solar Energy-Hydrogen System -- 3.3.1 Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Production -- 3.3.1.1 PEC Materials -- 3.3.1.2 Photoelectrochemical Systems -- 3.3.2 Electrochemical Hydrogen Production -- 3.3.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Electrolysis Cell (PEMEC) -- 3.3.2.2 Alkaline Electrolysis Cell (AEC) -- 3.3.2.3 Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC) -- 3.3.3 Fuel Cell -- 3.3.4 Photovoltaic -- 3.4 Thermochemical Systems -- 3.5 Photobiological Hydrogen Production -- 3.6 Conclusion -- References. , Chapter 4 Green Sources to Green Storage on Solar-Hydrogen Coupling -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.1.1 Hybrid System -- 4.2 Concentrated Solar Thermal H2 Production -- 4.3 Thermochemical Aqua Splitting Technology for Solar-H2 Generation -- 4.4 Solar to Hydrogen Through Decarbonization of Fossil Fuels -- 4.4.1 Solar Cracking -- 4.5 Solar Thermal-Based Hydrogen Generation Through Electrolysis -- 4.6 Photovoltaics-Based Hydrogen Production -- 4.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 5 Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Parameters to Evaluate Efficient HER Catalysts -- 5.2.1 Overpotential (o.p) -- 5.2.2 Tafel Plot -- 5.2.3 Stability -- 5.2.4 Faradaic Efficiency and Turnover Frequency -- 5.2.5 Hydrogen Bonding Energy (HBE) -- 5.3 Categories of HER Catalysts -- 5.3.1 Noble Metal-Based Catalysts -- 5.3.2 Non-Noble Metal-Based Catalysts -- 5.3.3 Metal-Free 2D Nanomaterials -- 5.3.4 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides -- 5.3.5 Transition Metal Oxides and Hydroxides -- 5.3.6 Transition Metal Phosphides -- 5.3.7 MXenes (Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides) -- Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 6 Recent Progress on Metal Catalysts for Electrochemical Hydrogen Evolution -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Type of Water Electrolysis Technologies -- 6.1.1.1 Alkaline Electrolysis (AE) -- 6.1.1.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis (PEME) -- 6.1.1.3 Solid Oxide Electrolysis (SOE) -- 6.2 Mechanism of Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) -- 6.2.1 Performance Evaluation of Catalyst -- 6.3 Various Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) -- 6.3.1 Noble Metal Catalysts for HER -- 6.3.1.1 Platinum-Based Catalysts -- 6.3.1.2 Palladium Based Catalysts -- 6.3.1.3 Ruthenium Based Catalysts -- 6.3.2 Non-Noble Metal Catalysts -- 6.3.2.1 Transition Metal Phosphides (TMP) -- 6.3.2.2 Transition Metal Chalcogenides. , 6.3.2.3 Transition Metal Carbides (TMC) -- 6.4 Conclusion and Future Aspects -- References -- Chapter 7 Dark Fermentation and Principal Routes to Produce Hydrogen -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Biohydrogen Production from Organic Waste -- 7.2.1 Crude Glycerol -- 7.2.1.1 Dark Fermentation of Crude Glycerol to Biohydrogen and Bio Products -- 7.2.2 Dairy Waste -- 7.2.2.1 Dark Fermentation of Dairy Waste to Biohydrogen and Bioproducts -- 7.2.3 Fruit Waste -- 7.2.3.1 Dark Fermentation of Fruit Waste to Hydrogen and Bioproducts -- 7.3 Anaerobic Systems -- 7.3.1 Continuous Multiple Tube Reactor -- 7.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 8 Catalysts for Electrochemical Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Water Splitting and Their Products -- 8.3 Different Methods Used for Water Splitting -- 8.3.1 Setup for Water Splitting Systems at a Basic Level -- 8.3.2 Photocatalysis -- 8.3.3 Electrolysis -- 8.4 Principles of PEC and Photocatalytic H2 Generation -- 8.5 Electrochemical Process for Water Splitting Application -- 8.5.1 Water Splitting Through Electrochemistry -- 8.6 Different Materials Used in Water Splitting -- 8.6.1 Water Oxidation (OER) Materials -- 8.6.2 Developing Materials for Hydrogen Synthesis -- 8.6.3 Material Stability for Water Splitting -- 8.7 Mechanism of Electrochemical Catalysis in Water Splitting and Hydrogen Production -- 8.7.1 Electrochemical Water Splitting with Cheap Metal-Based Catalysts -- 8.7.2 Catalysts with Only One Atom -- 8.7.3 Electrochemical Water Splitting Using Low-Cost Metal-Free Catalysts -- 8.8 Water Splitting and Hydrogen Production Materials Used in Electrochemical Catalysis -- 8.8.1 Metal and Alloys -- 8.8.2 Metal Oxides/Hydroxides and Chalogenides -- 8.8.3 Metal Carbides, Borides, Nitrides, and Phosphides. , 8.9 Uses of Hydrogen Produced from Water Splitting -- 8.9.1 Water Splitting Generates Hydrogen Energy -- 8.9.2 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Water Splitting -- 8.9.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting -- 8.9.4 Biological Water Splitting -- 8.9.5 Fermentation -- 8.9.6 Biomass and Waste Conversions -- 8.9.7 Solar Thermal Water Splitting -- 8.9.8 Renewable Electrolysis -- 8.9.9 Hydrogen Dispenser Hose Reliability -- 8.10 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9 Challenges and Mitigation Strategies Related to Biohydrogen Production -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Limitation and Mitigation Approaches of Biohydrogen Production -- 9.2.1 Physical Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches -- 9.2.1.1 Operating Temperature Issue and Its Control -- 9.2.1.2 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Optimization -- 9.2.1.3 High Hydrogen Partial Pressure - Implication and Overcoming the Issue -- 9.2.1.4 Membrane Fouling Issues and Solutions -- 9.2.2 Biological Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches -- 9.2.2.1 Start-Up Issue and Improvement Through Bioaugmentation -- 9.2.2.2 Biomass Washout Issue and Solution Through Cell Immobilization -- 9.2.3 Chemical Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches -- 9.2.3.1 pH Variation and Its Regulation -- 9.2.3.2 Limiting Nutrient Loading and Optimization -- 9.2.3.3 Inhibitor Secretion and Its Control -- 9.2.3.4 Byproduct Formation and Its Exploitation -- 9.2.4 Economic Issues and Ways to Optimize Cost -- 9.3 Conclusion and Future Direction -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 10 Continuous Production of Clean Hydrogen from Wastewater by Microbial Usage -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Wastewater for Biohydrogen Production -- 10.3 Photofermentation -- 10.3.1 Continuous Photofermentation -- 10.3.2 Factors Affecting Photofermentation Hydrogen Production -- 10.3.2.1 Inoculum Condition and Substrate Concentration -- 10.3.2.2 Carbon and Nitrogen Source. , 10.3.2.3 Temperature -- 10.3.2.4 pH -- 10.3.2.5 Light Intensity -- 10.3.2.6 Immobilization -- 10.4 Dark Fermentation -- 10.4.1 Continuous Dark Fermentation -- 10.4.2 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Production in Continuous Dark Fermentation -- 10.4.2.1 Start-Up Time -- 10.4.2.2 Organic Loading Rate -- 10.4.2.3 Hydraulic Retention Time -- 10.4.2.4 Temperature -- 10.4.2.5 pH -- 10.4.2.6 Immobilization -- 10.5 Microbial Electrolysis Cell -- 10.5.1 Mechanism of Microbial Electrolysis Cell -- 10.5.2 Wastewater Treatment and Hydrogen Production -- 10.5.3 Factors Affecting Microbial Electrolysis Cell Performance -- 10.5.3.1 Inoculum -- 10.5.3.2 pH -- 10.5.3.3 Temperature -- 10.5.3.4 Hydraulic Retention Time -- 10.5.3.5 Applied Voltage -- 10.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 11 Conversion Techniques for Hydrogen Production and Recovery Using Membrane Separation -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Conversion Technique for Hydrogen Production -- 11.2.1 Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation via Particulate System -- 11.2.2 Photoelectrochemical Cell (PEC) -- 11.2.3 Photovoltaic-Photoelectrochemical Cell (PV-PEC) -- 11.2.4 Electrolysis -- 11.3 Hydrogen Recovery Using Membrane Separation (H2/O2 Membrane Separation) -- 11.3.1 Polymeric Membranes -- 11.3.2 Porous Membranes -- 11.3.3 Dense Metal Membranes -- 11.3.4 Ion-Conductive Membranes -- 11.4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 12 Geothermal Energy-Driven Hydrogen Production Systems -- Abbreviations -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Hydrogen - A Green Fuel and an Energy Carrier -- 12.3 Production of Hydrogen -- 12.3.1 Fossil Fuel-Based -- 12.3.2 Non-Fossil Fuel-Based -- 12.4 Geothermal Energy -- 12.4.1 Introductory View -- 12.4.2 Types and Occurrences -- 12.5 Hydrogen Production From Geothermal Energy -- 12.5.1 Hydrogen Production Systems -- 12.5.2 Working Fluids. , 12.5.3 Assimilation of Solar and Geothermal Energy.