Note: Air Quality in Urban Environments -- Contents -- Urban Air Pollution Climates throughout the World -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Emission and Formation of Urban Air Pollution -- 1.2 Urban Pollution Levels and Indicators -- 2 Sources in the Vicinity of the City -- 3 Impact of the Geography, Topography and Meteorology -- 3.1 Geography -- 3.2 Topography -- 3.3 Meteorology -- 4 Pollutant Dispersion in Urban Streets (see also chapter by Salmond and McKendry) -- 5 Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution in Urban Areas (see also chapter by Bloss) -- 6 Particle Pollution in Urban Areas -- 6.1 Particle Mass Concentrations -- 6.2 Particle Number Concentrations -- 6.3 Importance of Measurement Location -- 6.4 Contribution from Natural Processes -- 7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in Urban Areas -- 7.1 Sources and Emissions -- 7.2 Sampling Artefacts -- 7.3 Long Range Transport -- 7.4 Future Requirements -- 8 Trace Elements, including Heavy Metals in Urban Areas -- 8.1 Heavy Metals -- 8.2 Trace Elements -- 8.3 Recommendations for Modelling -- 9 Conclusions -- References -- Influences of Meteorology on Air Pollution Concentrations and Processes in Urban Areas -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Polluted Urban Atmosphere -- 3 The Urban Canopy Layer -- 3.1 Emissions, Intra-Urban Variability and Data Sources -- 3.2 Flow Patterns within the Urban Canopy Layer -- 3.3 Street Canyons -- 3.4 Vertical Exchange Processes: Coupling the UCL to the UBL -- 4 Larger Scale Processes Affecting Urban Air Pollution -- 4.1 Mesoscale Flows -- 4.2 Regional Transport -- 4.3 Synoptic Scales -- 4.4 Global Scales and "Chemical Weather" -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Atmospheric Chemical Processes of Importance in Cities -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Emissions in the City Environment -- 3 Dynamic Considerations -- 4 Gas-phase Chemical Processing -- 4.1 NOx-Ozone Interactions. , 4.2 Oxidant Radicals and Ozone Production -- 4.3 Night-Time Processes -- 4.4 Timescales of Ozone Production -- 4.5 Analysis of Ozone Sources -- 4.6 Limits on Ozone Production: NOx-Limited and VOC-Limited -- 5 Modifications Particular to the Urban Environment -- 5.1 Radical Sources -- 5.2 VOC Speciation and Abundance -- 5.3 Primary Emissions of NO2 -- 6 Particulate Phase Chemistry -- 6.1 Chemical Composition -- 6.2 Secondary Particle Formation -- 6.3 Other Impacts of Aerosol -- 7 Modelling Urban Atmospheric Chemistry -- 8 Conclusions -- References -- Air Pollution in Underground Railway Systems -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Physical and Chemical Properties -- 2.1 Particle Mass and Number Concentrations -- 2.2 Time Variation -- 2.3 Chemical Composition -- 2.4 Size Distributions -- 2.5 Morphology and Speciation -- 3 Emission Sources -- 4 Consequences for Human Health -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Human Exposure: Indoor and Outdoor -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Characteristics of Outdoor and Indoor Exposure -- 2.1 Outdoor Exposure -- 2.2 Indoor Exposure -- 2.3 Time-Activity Patterns -- 2.4 Indoor-Outdoor Relationships -- 3 Exposure Assessment -- 3.1 Exposure Monitoring -- 3.1.1 Monitoring Networks -- 3.1.2 Personal Monitoring -- 3.1.3 Biomonitoring -- 3.2 Exposure Modelling -- 3.2.1 Proximity and Buffer Zone Models -- 3.2.2 Dispersion and Photochemical Air Quality Models -- 3.2.3 Geostatistical Interpolation and Land-Use Regression Models -- 3.2.4 Receptor-Oriented Models -- 3.2.5 Time-Activity (or Micro-Environmental) Modelling -- 3.3 Modelling Uncertainty -- 4 Evidence from Personal Exposure Surveys in Urban Areas -- 4.1 North American Studies -- 4.2 European Studies -- 5 Role of Exposure Assessment in Regulatory Control of Air Pollution -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Health Effects of Urban Pollution -- 1 Introduction. , 2 Exposure to Air Pollutants -- 3 Epidemiological Approaches -- 3.1 Time-Series Studies -- 3.2 Intervention Studies -- 3.3 Cohort Studies -- 4 Particulate Matter -- 5 Nitrogen Dioxide -- 6 Sulfur Dioxide -- 7 Ozone -- 8 Carbon Monoxide -- 9 Carcinogenic Air Pollutants found in Urban Areas -- References -- The Policy Response to Improving Urban Air Quality -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Policy and the Evidence Base after the Smog Episodes of 1952 and 1962 -- 3 The Development of Strategies in the UK and Europe -- 4 Policy Instruments which Reduce Emissions -- 5 Future Developments in Air Quality Management Policies -- 5.1 Exposure Reduction -- 5.2 Links and Co-benefits with Climate Change Policies -- Disclaimer -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Geoengineering of the Climate System -- Contents -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Why do we need Solutions to Global Warming? -- 1 Introduction - Life and the Evolution of the Earth's Atmosphere -- 2 The Atmosphere - The Most Valuable Resource on the Planet -- 3 The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming -- 4 What is Geoengineering? -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Are there Parallels to Climate Change and Geoengineering? -- 4.3 Scientific Respectability of Geoengineering -- 4.4 The Arguments for and against Geoengineering Research -- 5 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Storing Carbon for Geologically Long Timescales to Engineer Climate -- 1 Why is Carbon Storage Necessary? -- 2 The Approach and Controlling Factors -- 3 Methods of Reduced Emission Rates -- 4 Principles of Carbon Dioxide Removal (Negative Emissions Technologies) -- 5 Life-cycle Assessments -- 6 Biomass Availability and Sustainability -- 7 Carbon Dioxide Storage Availability -- 8 Summary of Carbon Storage Methods -- 8.1 Increased Terrestrial Biomass: Afforestation -- 8.2 Increased Soil Biomass: Biochar -- 8.3 Biomass Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) -- 8.4 Biomass Burial, Carbon Dioxide Use and Algal Carbon Dioxide Capture -- 8.5 Direct Air Capture -- 8.6 Silicate Weathering -- 8.7 Chemical Feedstock -- 8.8 Carbon Dioxide for Enhanced Oil Recovery (CO2-EOR) -- 8.9 Deep Sea Sediments -- 9 Discussion -- 10 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- The Global Potential for Carbon Dioxide Removal -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Plant-based CDR -- 2.1 Resource Supplies -- 2.2 Afforestation and Reforestation -- 2.3 Bioenergy Crop Supplies -- 2.4 Additional Biomass Supplies -- 2.5 Conversion Routes and Efficiencies -- 2.6 Combined CDR Potential -- 3 Algal-based CDR -- 3.1 Resource Supplies -- 3.2 Algal BECCS -- 3.3 Ocean Fertilisation -- 3.4 Combined CDR Potential. , 4 Alkalinity-based CDR -- 4.1 Enhanced Weathering - Land -- 4.2 Enhanced Weathering - Ocean -- 4.3 Direct Air Capture (DAC) -- 4.4 Combined CDR Potential -- 5 Overall CDR Flux Potential -- 6 Discussion -- References -- The Use of Artificial Trees -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Air Capture as an Engineering and Policy Challenge -- 3 An Example of an Air Capture Technology -- 4 Cost Issues -- 5 What Price can Air Capture Technology Deliver? -- 6 The Usefulness of Air Capture Technology -- 6.1 Carbon Capture from Air and Storage -- 6.2 Fugitive Emissions -- 6.3 Risk Management to Oil Resource Holders -- 6.4 Managing the Risks of Global Warming -- 6.5 Air Capture as a Tool for Geoengineering -- 6.6 Closing the Non-fossil Carbon Cycle -- 7 Discussion and Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Cooling the Earth with Crops -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Mechanisms -- 2.1 Biogeophysical Mechanisms -- 2.1.1 Albedo -- 2.1.2 Evapotranspiration -- 2.1.3 Emissivity -- 2.1.4 The Aerodynamic Roughness -- 3 Geographical Differences -- 3.1 Tropics -- 3.2 Temperate and Boreal -- 4 Historical Land Cover Change -- 5 Future Land Cover Change -- 6 Increased Crop Albedo -- 6.1 Albedo Values of Crops -- 6.2 Determinants of Albedo -- 6.3 Leaf Level Albedo -- 6.4 Canopy Level Albedo -- 7 Simulations with Climate Models -- 7.1 Crops in Climate Models -- 7.2 Climate Impacts -- 8 Yields -- 9 Other Crop Cooling Potential -- 9.1 Soil Carbon Sequestration -- 9.2 Biofuels -- 10 Priorities for Future Work -- 11 Conclusions -- References -- Engineering Ideas for Brighter Clouds -- 1 Introduction -- 2 A Reminder of the Physics -- 3 The Main Engineering Problems -- 3.1 Spray Generation -- 4 The Wafer -- 5 Filtration -- 6 Vessel Design -- 7 Justification of the Trimaran Configuration -- 8 Digital Hydraulics -- 9 The Mathematics -- 10 Costs -- 11 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References. , Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering -- 1 Introduction -- 2 How to Create a Stratospheric Cloud -- 2.1 Why the Stratosphere? -- 2.2 Means of Stratospheric Injection -- 2.3 Creating an Effective Sulfuric Acid Cloud -- 3 Climate Impacts of Stratospheric Geoengineering -- 3.1 Climate Models -- 3.2 Scenarios of Geoengineering -- 3.3 Global and Regional Temperature Impacts -- 3.4 Global and Regional Precipitation and Monsoon Impacts -- 3.5 Impacts of Enhanced Diffuse Radiation -- 4 Ethics and Governance of Stratospheric Geoengineering -- 4.1 Ethics and Governance of Research -- 4.2 Ethics and Governance of Deployment -- 5 Benefits and Risks of Stratospheric Geoengineering -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Space-Based Geoengineering Solutions -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Space-based Geoengineering -- 3 Lagrange Point Occulting Disks -- 3.1 Occulting Solar Disks -- 3.2 Occulter Orbit -- 3.3 Occulter Sizing -- 4 Lagrange Point Dust Cloud -- 4.1 Dissipating Dust Cloud -- 4.1.1 Solar Radiation Pressure -- 4.1.2 Dust Cloud Attenuation -- 4.1.3 Insolation Reduction -- 4.2 Anchored Dust Cloud -- 4.2.1 Four-body Problem -- 4.2.2 Zero Velocity Curve -- 4.2.3 Effect on Solar Insolation -- 5 Optimal Configuration for Lagrange Point Occulting Disks -- 5.1 GREB Climate Models -- 5.2 Out-of-plane Occulter -- 5.3 Optimal Orbiting Disk -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Solar Radiation Management and the Governance of Hubris -- 1 Introduction: Hubris, Piety and the Limits of Human Governance -- 2 SRM as Political Artefact -- 3 SRM Research and Attempts to Legitimate it as an Object of Governance -- 3.1 The Royal Society 2009 Report -- 3.2 Development of Normative Principles for Governing SRM Research -- 3.3 The Solar Radiation Management Governance Initiative (SRMGI) -- 3.4 Thresholds and 'Differentiated Governance'. , 4 From Saying to Doing: Governing SRM Research within a Framework for Responsible Innovation -- 5 A Social Licence to Operate? -- 5.1 Conditionality and Implausibility -- 6 Conclusions: Governing a New End of History? -- Appendix -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Subject Index.