Description: The replenishment of consumed oxygen in the open ocean oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) off northwest Africa is accomplished by oxygen transport across and along density surfaces, i.e. diapycnal and isopycnal oxygen supply. Here the diapycnal oxygen supply is investigated using a large observational set of oxygen profiles and diapycnal mixing data from years 2008 to 2010. Diapycnal mixing is inferred from different sources: (i) a large-scale tracer release experiment, (ii) microstructure profiles, and (iii) shipboard acoustic current measurements plus density profiles. From these measurements, the average diapycnal diffusivity in the studied depth interval from 150 to 500m is estimated to be 1×10−5 m2 s−1, with lower and upper 95%confidence limits of 0.8×10−5 m2 s−1 and 1.4×10−5 m2 s−1. Diapycnal diffusivity in this depth range is predominantly caused by turbulence, and shows no significant vertical gradient. Diapycnal mixing is found to contribute substantially to the oxygen supply of the OMZ. Within the OMZ core, 1.5 μmol kg−1 yr−1 of oxygen is supplied via diapycnal mixing, contributing about one-third of the total demand. This oxygen which is supplied via diapycnal mixing originates from oxygen that has been laterally supplied within the upper CentralWater layer above the OMZ, and within the Antarctic Intermediate Water layer below the OMZ. Due to the existence of a separate shallow oxygen minimum at about 100m depth throughout most of the study area, there is no net vertical oxygen flux from the surface layer into the Central Water layer. Thus all oxygen supply of the OMZ is associated with remote pathways.

Description: Ocean observations carried out in the framework of the Collaborative Research Center 754 (SFB 754) "Climate-Biogeochemistry Interactions in the Tropical Ocean" are used to study (1) the structure of tropical oxygen minimum zones (OMZs), (2) the processes that contribute to the oxygen budget, and (3) long-term changes in the oxygen distribution. The OMZ of the eastern tropical North Atlantic (ETNA), located between the well-ventilated subtropical gyre and the equatorial oxygen maximum, is composed of a deep OMZ at about 400 m depth with its core region centred at about 20° W, 10° N and a shallow OMZ at about 100 m depth with lowest oxygen concentrations in proximity to the coastal upwelling region off Mauritania and Senegal. The oxygen budget of the deep OMZ is given by oxygen consumption mainly balanced by the oxygen supply due to meridional eddy fluxes (about 60%) and vertical mixing (about 20%, locally up to 30%). Advection by zonal jets is crucial for the establishment of the equatorial oxygen maximum. In the latitude range of the deep OMZ, it dominates the oxygen supply in the upper 300 to 400 m and generates the intermediate oxygen maximum between deep and shallow OMZs. Water mass ages from transient tracers indicate substantially older water masses in the core of the deep OMZ (about 120–180 years) compared to regions north and south of it. The deoxygenation of the ETNA OMZ during recent decades suggests a substantial imbalance in the oxygen budget: about 10% of the oxygen consumption during that period was not balanced by ventilation. Long-term oxygen observations show variability on interannual, decadal and multidecadal time scales that can partly be attributed to circulation changes. In comparison to the ETNA OMZ the eastern tropical South Pacific OMZ shows a similar structure including an equatorial oxygen maximum driven by zonal advection, but overall much lower oxygen concentrations approaching zero in extended regions. As the shape of the OMZs is set by ocean circulation, the widespread misrepresentation of the intermediate circulation in ocean circulation models substantially contributes to their oxygen bias, which might have significant impacts on predictions of future oxygen levels.

Description: Two consecutive summer upwelling events, each lasting for less than 24 h, were surveyed in high temporal and vertical resolution close to the Boknis Eck time-series station (BE) in the western Belt Sea (Baltic Sea) in summer 2010 with an autonomous glider. Driven only by moderate offshore winds both events resulted in more than 5 K cooling of surface waters, while only for the second event were significant irreversible changes in the vertical stratification observed. Generalizing the glider survey observations with hourly wind data from nearby meteorological stations, it is found that upwelling in the BE area occurs for wind directions between 190 to 260° and wind speed exceeding 4 m s−1. Based on these thresholds the wind-induced summer (June to September) upwelling conditions in the BE area for the period 1982 to 2012 are reconstructed. On average about 18 days of upwelling favourable wind conditions are found for the four summer months, with significant interannual variability ranging from 7.7 days (2006) to more than 28 days (1985). By aligning upwelling favourable wind conditions with the monthly BE surveys it is found that extreme anomalies in BE surveys follow extended periods of upwelling favourable winds.

Description: The temporal evolution of the physical and biogeochemical structure of an oxygen-depleted anticyclonic modewater eddy is investigated over a 2-month period using high-resolution glider and ship data. A weakly stratified eddy core (squared buoyancy frequency N2  ∼  0.1  ×  10−4 s−2) at shallow depth is identified with a horizontal extent of about 70 km and bounded by maxima in N2. The upper N2 maximum (3–5  ×  10−4 s−2) coincides with the mixed layer base and the lower N2 maximum (0.4  ×  10−4 s−2) is found at about 200 m depth in the eddy centre. The eddy core shows a constant slope in temperature/salinity (T∕S) characteristic over the 2 months, but an erosion of the core progressively narrows down the T∕S range. The eddy minimal oxygen concentrations decreased by about 5 µmol kg−1 in 2 months, confirming earlier estimates of oxygen consumption rates in these eddies. Separating the mesoscale and perturbation flow components reveals oscillating velocity finestructure ( ∼  0.1 m s−1) underneath the eddy and at its flanks. The velocity finestructure is organized in layers that align with layers in properties (salinity, temperature) but mostly cross through surfaces of constant density. The largest magnitude in velocity finestructure is seen between the surface and 140 m just outside the maximum mesoscale flow but also in a layer underneath the eddy centre, between 250 and 450 m. For both regions a cyclonic rotation of the velocity finestructure with depth suggests the vertical propagation of near-inertial wave (NIW) energy. Modification of the planetary vorticity by anticyclonic (eddy core) and cyclonic (eddy periphery) relative vorticity is most likely impacting the NIW energy propagation. Below the low oxygen core salt-finger type double diffusive layers are found that align with the velocity finestructure. Apparent oxygen utilization (AOU) versus dissolved inorganic nitrate (NO3−) ratios are about twice as high (16) in the eddy core compared to surrounding waters (8.1). A large NO3− deficit of 4 to 6 µmol kg−1 is determined, rendering denitrification an unlikely explanation. Here it is hypothesized that the differences in local recycling of nitrogen and oxygen, as a result of the eddy dynamics, cause the shift in the AOU : NO3− ratio. High NO3− and low oxygen waters are eroded by mixing from the eddy core and entrain into the mixed layer. The nitrogen is reintroduced into the core by gravitational settling of particulate matter out of the euphotic zone. The low oxygen water equilibrates in the mixed layer by air–sea gas exchange and does not participate in the gravitational sinking. Finally we propose a mesoscale–submesoscale interaction concept where wind energy, mediated via NIWs, drives nutrient supply to the euphotic zone and drives extraordinary blooms in anticyclonic mode-water eddies.

Description: Localized open-ocean low-oxygen “dead zones” in the eastern tropical North Atlantic are recently discovered ocean features that can develop in dynamically isolated water masses within cyclonic eddies (CE) and anticyclonic mode-water eddies (ACME). Analysis of a comprehensive oxygen dataset obtained from gliders, moorings, research vessels and Argo floats reveals that “dead-zone” eddies are found in surprisingly high numbers and in a large area from about 4 to 22° N, from the shelf at the eastern boundary to 38° W. In total, 173 profiles with oxygen concentrations below the minimum background concentration of 40 µmol kg−1 could be associated with 27 independent eddies (10 CEs; 17 ACMEs) over a period of 10 years. Lowest oxygen concentrations in CEs are less than 10 µmol kg−1 while in ACMEs even suboxic (〈 1 µmol kg−1) levels are observed. The oxygen minimum in the eddies is located at shallow depth from 50 to 150 m with a mean depth of 80 m. Compared to the surrounding waters, the mean oxygen anomaly in the core depth range (50 and 150 m) for CEs (ACMEs) is −38 (−79) µmol kg−1. North of 12° N, the oxygen-depleted eddies carry anomalously low-salinity water of South Atlantic origin from the eastern boundary upwelling region into the open ocean. Here water mass properties and satellite eddy tracking both point to an eddy generation near the eastern boundary. In contrast, the oxygen-depleted eddies south of 12° N carry weak hydrographic anomalies in their cores and seem to be generated in the open ocean away from the boundary. In both regions a decrease in oxygen from east to west is identified supporting the en-route creation of the low-oxygen core through a combination of high productivity in the eddy surface waters and an isolation of the eddy cores with respect to lateral oxygen supply. Indeed, eddies of both types feature a cold sea surface temperature anomaly and enhanced chlorophyll concentrations in their center. The low-oxygen core depth in the eddies aligns with the depth of the shallow oxygen minimum zone of the eastern tropical North Atlantic. Averaged over the whole area an oxygen reduction of 7 µmol kg−1 in the depth range of 50 to 150 m (peak reduction is 16 µmol kg−1 at 100 m depth) can be associated with the dispersion of the eddies. Thus the locally increased oxygen consumption within the eddy cores enhances the total oxygen consumption in the open eastern tropical North Atlantic Ocean and seems to be an contributor to the formation of the shallow oxygen minimum zone.

Description: A strong El Niño developed in early 2015. Measurements from a research cruise on the R/V Sonne in October 2015 near the Equator east of the Galapagos Islands and off the shelf of Peru are used to investigate changes related to El Niño in the upper ocean in comparison with earlier cruises in this region. At the Equator at 85°30′ W, a clear temperature increase leading to lower densities in the upper 350 m had developed in October 2015, despite a concurrent salinity increase from 40 to 350 m. Lower nutrient concentrations were also present in the upper 200 m, and higher oxygen concentrations were observed between 40 and 130 m. In the equatorial current field, the Equatorial Undercurrent (EUC) east of the Galapagos Islands almost disappeared in October 2015, with a transport of only 0.02 Sv in the equatorial channel between 1° S and 1° N, and a weak current band of 0.78 Sv located between 1 and 2°30′ S. Such near-disappearances of the EUC in the eastern Pacific seem to occur only during strong El Niño events. Off the Peruvian shelf at  ∼  9° S, characteristics of upwelling were different as warm, saline, and oxygen-rich water was upwelled. At  ∼  12,  ∼  14, and  ∼  16° S, the upwelling of cold, low-salinity, and oxygen-poor water was still active at the easternmost stations of these three sections, while further west on these sections a transition to El Niño conditions appeared. Although from early 2015 the El Niño was strong, the October measurements in the eastern tropical Pacific only showed developing El Niño water mass distributions. In particular, the oxygen distribution indicated the ongoing transition from “typical” to El Niño conditions progressing southward along the Peruvian shelf.

Description: In recent years, an increasing number of studies on phytoplankton in the tropical South China Sea (SCS) and Sulu Sea (SS) have been conducted. However, still little is known about the photophysiological state of natural phytoplankton communities under varying environmental conditions. This study investigates the photophysiological state of natural phytoplankton communities in the southern SCS and SS based on high horizontal and vertical resolution field observations collected during the SHIVA (Stratosphere ozone: Halogens in a Varying Atmosphere) cruise (SO 218) in November 2011 on board RV Sonne. At the surface, pigment results revealed that total chlorophyll a (TChl a ) concentrations at all offshore stations were low at the surface and were generally dominated by cyanobacteria. Enhanced concentrations of TChl a were only observed below the upper mixed layer and above the euphotic depth with haptophytes, prochlorophytes and prasinophytes contributing most of the biomass. At stations close to the coast and river outflows, surface phytoplankton blooms (between 1 to 2.2 mg m−3) dominated by diatoms were observed. Overall, the study region exhibited strong nitrate + nitrite (NOx, 〈 1 μmol L−1), and phosphate (PO4, 〈 0.2 μmol L−1) depletion from surface down to about 50–60 m. Silicate (Si) exhibited similar trends with the exception of some near shore stations in which high Si concentrations (〉 2 μmol L−1) were observed in conjunction with increased TChl a and diatoms concentrations. Surface NOx concentrations were observed to correlate positively with temperature (τ = 0.22, p 〈 0.05, n = 108), whereas negative correlations were reported between surface NOx (τ = −0.27, p 〈 0.05, n = 108), Si (τ = −0.68, p 〈 0.05, n = 108) and salinity indicating that the enhancement in nutrients at the surface was probably supplied through fresher and warmer river waters near the coast. In contrast, the opposite was observed between temperature, salinity and all nutrients in the water column suggesting that nutrients were supplied from the bottom through upwelling. Pigment gradients show that phytoplankton were optimising their pigment composition to acclimate to changes in the light climate and cells were in a competent state as suggested by high maximum photochemical efficiency values (Fv/ Fm, 〉 0.4)

Description: Repeat shipboard and multi-year moored observations obtained in the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) of the eastern tropical North Atlantic (ETNA) were used to study the decadal change in oxygen for the period 2006–2015. Along 23° W between 6 and 14° N, oxygen decreased with a rate of −5.9 ± 3.5 µmol kg−1 decade−1 within the depth covering the deep oxycline (200–400 m), while below the OMZ core (400–1000 m) oxygen increased by 4.0 ± 1.6 µmol kg−1 decade−1 on average. The inclusion of these decadal oxygen trends in the recently estimated oxygen budget for the ETNA OMZ suggests a weakened ventilation of the upper 400 m, whereas the ventilation strengthened homogeneously below 400 m. The changed ventilation resulted in a shoaling of the ETNA OMZ of −0.03 ± 0.02 kg m−3 decade−1 in density space, which was only partly compensated by a deepening of isopycnal surfaces, thus pointing to a shoaling of the OMZ in depth space as well (−22 ± 17 m decade−1). Based on the improved oxygen budget, possible causes for the changed ventilation are analyzed and discussed. Largely ruling out other ventilation processes, the zonal advective oxygen supply stands out as the most probable budget term responsible for the decadal oxygen changes.

Description: The intraseasonal evolution of physical and biogeochemical properties during a coastal trapped wave event off central Peru is analysed using data from an extensive shipboard observational programme conducted between April and June 2017, and remote sensing data. The poleward velocities in the Peru–Chile Undercurrent were highly variable and strongly intensified to above 0.5 m s−1 between the middle and end of May. This intensification was likely caused by a first-baroclinic-mode downwelling coastal trapped wave, excited by a westerly wind anomaly at the Equator and originating at about 95∘ W. Local winds along the South American coast did not impact the wave. Although there is general agreement between the observed cross-shore-depth velocity structure of the coastal trapped wave and the velocity structure of first vertical mode solution of a linear wave model, there are differences in the details of the two flow distributions. The enhanced poleward flow increased water mass advection from the equatorial current system to the study site. The resulting shorter alongshore transit times between the Equator and the coast off central Peru led to a strong increase in nitrate concentrations, less anoxic water, likely less fixed nitrogen loss to N2 and a decrease of the nitrogen deficit compared to the situation before the poleward flow intensification. This study highlights the role of changes in the alongshore advection due to coastal trapped waves for the nutrient budget and the cumulative strength of N cycling in the Peruvian oxygen minimum zone. Enhanced availability of nitrate may impact a range of pelagic and benthic elemental cycles, as it represents a major electron acceptor for organic carbon degradation during denitrification and is involved in sulfide oxidation in sediments.

Description: Oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) show distinct biogeochemical processes that relate to microorganisms being able to thrive under low or even absent oxygen. Microbial degradation of organic matter is expected to be reduced in OMZs, although quantitative evidence is low. Here, we present heterotrophic bacterial production (3H leucine incorporation), extracellular enzyme rates (leucine aminopeptidase/β-glucosidase) and bacterial cell abundance for various in situ oxygen concentrations in the water column, including the upper and lower oxycline, of the eastern tropical South Pacific off Peru. Bacterial heterotrophic activity in the suboxic core of the OMZ (at in situ ≤ 5 µmol O2 kg−1) ranged from 0.3 to 281 µmol C m−3 d−1 and was not significantly lower than in waters of 5–60 µmol O2 kg−1. Moreover, bacterial abundance in the OMZ and leucine aminopeptidase activity were significantly higher in suboxic waters compared to waters of 5–60 µmol O2 kg−1, suggesting no impairment of bacterial organic-matter degradation in the core of the OMZ. Nevertheless, high cell-specific bacterial production was observed in samples from oxyclines, and cell-specific extracellular enzyme rates were especially high at the lower oxycline, corroborating earlier findings of highly active and distinct micro-aerobic bacterial communities. To assess the impact of bacterial degradation of dissolved organic matter (DOM) for oxygen loss in the Peruvian OMZ, we compared diapycnal fluxes of oxygen and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and their microbial uptake within the upper 60 m of the water column. Our data indicate low bacterial growth efficiencies of 1 %–21 % at the upper oxycline, resulting in a high bacterial oxygen demand that can explain up to 33 % of the observed average oxygen loss over depth. Our study therewith shows that microbial degradation of DOM has a considerable share in sustaining the OMZ off Peru.