Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- About the Editor -- About the Authors -- Contents -- List of Abbreviations -- List of Symbols -- Part A Basics of Atmospheric Measurement Techniques -- 1 Introduction to Atmospheric Measurements -- 1.1 Measuring Meteorological Elements -- 1.2 History -- 1.3 The Structure of the Atmosphere -- 1.4 Devices, Systems, and Typical Specifications -- 1.5 Applications -- 1.6 Future Developments -- 1.7 Further Reading -- References -- 2 Principles of Measurements -- 2.1 Basics of Measurements -- 2.2 History -- 2.3 Errors in Measurement -- 2.4 Regression Analysis -- 2.5 Time Domain and Frequency Domain for Signals and Systems -- 2.6 Dynamics of Measuring Systems -- 2.7 Analog and Digital Signal Processing -- 2.8 Hardware for Digital Measurement Systems -- 2.9 Further Reading -- References -- 3 Quality Assurance and Control -- 3.1 Principles and Definition -- 3.2 History -- 3.3 Elements of Quality Management -- 3.4 Application -- 3.5 Future Developments -- 3.6 Further Reading -- References -- 4 Standardization in Atmospheric Measurements -- 4.1 Background and Definitions -- 4.2 History -- 4.3 Principles and Procedures -- 4.4 Standardization in the Field of Atmospheric Measurements -- 4.5 Future Developments -- 4.6 Further Reading -- References -- 5 Physical Quantities -- 5.1 Selection of Parameters -- 5.2 History and Thermodynamic Standards -- 5.3 Units and Constants -- 5.4 Parameters of Air, Water Vapor, Water, and Ice -- 5.5 Parameterization of Optical Properties of Clouds -- 5.6 Absorption Coefficients for Water Vapor, Ozone, and Carbon Dioxide -- 5.7 Parameters of Soil -- 5.8 Time and Astronomical Quantities -- 5.9 Tables in Other Chapters -- 5.10 Future Developments -- 5.11 Further Reading -- References -- Part B In situ Measurement Techniques -- 6 Ground-Based Platforms -- 6.1 Principles of Platforms -- 6.2 History. , 6.3 Theory -- 6.4 Platforms and Sensor Installations -- 6.5 Specification -- 6.6 Quality Control and Safety -- 6.7 Maintenance -- 6.8 Applications -- 6.9 Future Developments -- 6.10 Further Readings -- References -- 7 Temperature Sensors -- 7.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 7.2 History -- 7.3 Theory -- 7.4 Devices and Systems -- 7.5 Specifications -- 7.6 Quality Control -- 7.7 Maintenance -- 7.8 Applications -- 7.9 Future Developments -- 7.10 Further Reading -- References -- 8 Humidity Sensors -- 8.1 Measurement Principlesand Parameters -- 8.2 History -- 8.3 Theory -- 8.4 Devices and Systems -- 8.5 Specifications -- 8.6 Quality Control -- 8.7 Maintenance -- 8.8 Application -- 8.9 Future Developments -- 8.10 Further Readings -- References -- 9 Wind Sensors -- 9.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 9.2 History -- 9.3 Theory -- 9.4 Devices and Systems -- 9.5 Specifications -- 9.6 Quality Control -- 9.7 Maintenance -- 9.8 Application -- 9.9 Future Developments -- 9.10 Further Reading -- References -- 10 Pressure Sensors -- 10.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 10.2 History -- 10.3 Theory -- 10.4 Devices and Systems -- 10.5 Specifications -- 10.6 Quality Control -- 10.7 Maintenance -- 10.8 Application -- 10.9 Future Developments -- 10.10 Further Reading -- References -- 11 Radiation Sensors -- 11.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 11.2 History -- 11.3 Theory -- 11.4 Devices and Systems -- 11.5 Specifications -- 11.6 Quality Control -- 11.7 Maintenance -- 11.8 Applications -- 11.9 Future Developments -- 11.10 Further Reading -- References -- 12 In-situ Precipitation Measurements -- 12.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 12.2 History -- 12.3 Theory -- 12.4 Devices and Systems -- 12.5 Specifications -- 12.6 Quality Control, Uncertainty, and Calibration -- 12.7 Maintenance -- 12.8 Application -- 12.9 Future Developments. , 12.10 Further Reading -- References -- 13 Visibility Sensors -- 13.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 13.2 History -- 13.3 Theory -- 13.4 Devices and Systems -- 13.5 Specifications -- 13.6 Quality Control -- 13.7 Maintenance -- 13.8 Application -- 13.9 Future Developments -- 13.10 Further Reading -- References -- 14 Electricity Measurements -- 14.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 14.2 History -- 14.3 Theory -- 14.4 Devices and Systems -- 14.5 Specifications -- 14.6 Quality Control -- 14.7 Maintenance -- 14.8 Applications -- 14.9 Future Developments -- 14.10 Further Reading -- References -- 15 Radioactivity Sensors -- 15.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 15.2 History -- 15.3 Theory -- 15.4 Devices and Systems -- 15.5 Specifications -- 15.6 Quality Control -- 15.7 Maintenance -- 15.8 Application -- 15.9 Future Developments -- 15.10 Further Reading -- References -- 16 Gas Analysers and Laser Techniques -- 16.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 16.2 History -- 16.3 Theory -- 16.4 Devices and Systems -- 16.5 Specifications -- 16.6 Quality Control -- 16.7 Maintenance -- 16.8 Applications -- 16.9 Future Developments -- 16.10 Further Reading -- References -- 17 Measurement of Stable Isotopes in Carbon Dioxide, Methane, and Water Vapor -- 17.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 17.2 History of Stable Isotope Measurements in Atmospheric CO2, CH4 and H2O -- 17.3 Theory -- 17.4 Devices and Systems -- 17.5 Specifications -- 17.6 Quality Control -- 17.7 Maintenance -- 17.8 Application -- 17.9 Future Developments -- 17.10 Further Readings -- References -- 18 Measurement of Fundamental Aerosol Physical Properties -- 18.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 18.2 History -- 18.3 Theory -- 18.4 Devices and Systems -- 18.5 Specifications -- 18.6 Quality Control -- 18.7 Maintenance -- 18.8 Application. , 18.9 Future Developments -- 18.10 Further Reading -- References -- 19 Methods of Sampling Trace Substances in Air -- 19.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 19.2 History -- 19.3 Theory -- 19.4 Devices and Systems -- 19.5 Specifications -- 19.6 Quality Control -- 19.7 Maintenance -- 19.8 Application -- 19.9 Future Developments -- 19.10 Further Reading -- References -- 20 Optical Fiber-Based Distributed Sensing Methods -- 20.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 20.2 History -- 20.3 Theory -- 20.4 Devices -- 20.5 Specifications -- 20.6 Quality Control -- 20.7 Maintenance -- 20.8 Applications -- 20.9 Future Developments -- 20.10 Further Reading -- References -- 21 Odor Measurements -- 21.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 21.2 History -- 21.3 Theory -- 21.4 Devices and Systems -- 21.5 Specifications -- 21.6 Quality Control -- 21.7 Maintenance -- 21.8 Application -- 21.9 Future Developments -- 21.10 Further Readings -- References -- 22 Visual Observations -- 22.1 Principles of Visual Observations -- 22.2 History -- 22.3 Theory -- 22.4 Observed Parameters -- 22.5 Quality Control -- 22.6 Application- -- 22.7 Future Developments -- 22.8 Further Readings -- References -- Part C Remote-Sensing Techniques (Ground-Based) -- 23 Sodar and RASS -- 23.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 23.2 History -- 23.3 Theory -- 23.4 Devices and Systems -- 23.5 Specifications -- 23.6 Quality Control -- 23.7 Maintenance -- 23.8 Applications -- 23.9 Future Developments -- 23.10 Further Reading -- References -- 24 Backscatter Lidar for Aerosol and Cloud Profiling -- 24.1 Measurement Prinziples and Parameters -- 24.2 History -- 24.3 Theory -- 24.4 Devices and Systems -- 24.5 Specifications -- 24.6 Quality Control -- 24.7 Maintenance -- 24.8 Applications -- 24.9 Further Reading -- References -- 25 Raman Lidar for Water-Vapor and Temperature Profiling. , 25.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 25.2 History -- 25.3 Theory -- 25.4 Devices and Systems -- 25.5 Specifications -- 25.6 Quality Control -- 25.7 Maintenance -- 25.8 Applications -- 25.9 Future Developments -- 25.10 Further Reading-2 -- References -- 26 Water Vapor Differential Absorption Lidar -- 26.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 26.2 History -- 26.3 Theory -- 26.4 Devices and Systems -- 26.5 Specifications -- 26.6 Quality Control -- 26.7 Maintenance -- 26.8 Applications -- 26.9 Future Developments -- 26.10 Further Readings -- References -- 27 Doppler Wind Lidar -- 27.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 27.2 History -- 27.3 Theory -- 27.4 Devices and Systems -- 27.5 Specifications -- 27.6 Quality Control -- 27.7 Maintenance -- 27.8 Applications -- 27.9 Future Developments -- 27.10 Further Readings -- References -- 28 Spectrometers -- 28.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 28.2 History -- 28.3 Theory -- 28.4 Devices and Systems -- 28.5 Specifications -- 28.6 Quality Control -- 28.7 Maintenance -- 28.8 Applications -- 28.9 Future Developments -- 28.10 Further Readings -- References -- 29 Passive Solar and Microwave Spectral Radiometers -- 29.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 29.2 History -- 29.3 Theory -- 29.4 Devices and Systems -- 29.5 Specifications -- 29.6 Quality Control -- 29.7 Maintenance -- 29.8 Application -- 29.9 Future Developments -- 29.10 Further Readings -- References -- 30 Weather Radar -- 30.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 30.2 History -- 30.3 Theory -- 30.4 Radar Systems -- 30.5 Specifications -- 30.6 Quality Control -- 30.7 Maintenance -- 30.8 Applications -- 30.9 Future Developments -- 30.10 Further Reading -- References -- 31 Radar Wind Profiler -- 31.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters -- 31.2 History -- 31.3 Theory -- 31.4 Systems -- 31.5 Specifications. , 31.6 Quality Control.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- List of Abbreviations -- Part I Introduction -- 1 History of the Waldstein Measuring Sites -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 The Foundation of BITÖK and the Establishment of the Waldstein Sites -- 1.3 Research and Measuring Programs -- 1.3.1 BITÖK Research Projects -- 1.3.2 European Research Projects -- 1.3.3 German Research Projects -- 1.3.4 Permanent Measuring Program -- 1.4 Conclusions -- Reports -- References -- 2 Description of the Waldstein Measuring Site -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 The Waldstein Area -- 2.3 Specific Details of the Measuring Sites -- 2.3.1 Waldstein-Weidenbrunnen -- 2.3.1.1 Forest Stand -- 2.3.1.2 Instrumentation -- 2.3.2 Waldstein-Pflanzgarten -- 2.3.3 Köhlerloh -- 2.4 Conclusions -- References -- Part II Studies of Long-Term Measurements -- 3 Climate, Air Pollutants, and Wet Deposition -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Material and Methods -- 3.2.1 Main Meteorological Elements and Climatological Observations -- 3.2.2 Air Pollution Measurements -- 3.2.3 Wet Deposition -- 3.3 Results and Discussion -- 3.3.1 Climatology -- 3.3.1.1 Air Temperature -- 3.3.1.2 Precipitation -- 3.3.2 Air Pollutants O3, SO2, and NOx -- 3.3.2.1 Ozone -- 3.3.2.2 Trend Analysis -- 3.3.2.3 Annual O3 Variation and the Accumulated Exposure Over a Threshold of 40 ppb (AOT) -- 3.3.2.4 SO2 and NOx -- 3.3.3 Fog Deposition Fluxes -- 3.3.4 Wet Deposition -- 3.4 Conclusions -- References -- 4 Long-Term Carbon and Water Vapour Fluxes -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Methods -- 4.2.1 Site Description and Measurement Set-up -- 4.2.2 Data Processing -- 4.2.2.1 Turbulent Flux Processing -- 4.2.2.2 Meteorological Data -- 4.2.2.3 Gap-Filling -- 4.3 Results and Discussion -- 4.3.1 Energy Balance Closure of EC Measurements -- 4.3.2 Adaptations of the Gap-Filling Method for NEE -- 4.3.3 Carbon and Water Vapour Fluxes -- 4.3.3.1 Carbon Exchange. , 4.3.3.2 Water Vapour Fluxes -- 4.3.4 Factors Influencing the Carbon and Water Vapour Exchange -- 4.3.4.1 Development of the Spruce Forest at Waldstein Site -- 4.3.4.2 Instrumental and Methodological Issues -- 4.3.4.3 Influential Factors of Regional Relevance -- 4.4 Conclusion -- References -- Part III Experimental Studies of Energy and Matter Fluxes -- 5 Sap Flow Measurements -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Material and Methods -- 5.2.1 Study Sites -- 5.2.2 Sap Flow Measuring Technique -- 5.2.3 Modeling -- 5.2.4 Eddy Covariance Measurements -- 5.3 Results and Discussions -- 5.3.1 Tree Sap Flow and Canopy Transpiration -- 5.3.2 Tree Profile Measurements -- 5.4 Conclusions -- References -- 6 Coherent Structures and Flux Coupling -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Materials and Methods -- 6.2.1 Detection Algorithm and Conditional Flux Computation -- 6.2.2 Adapted Experimental Setup -- 6.3 Results and Discussions -- 6.3.1 Exchange Regimes for Vertical Coupling -- 6.3.2 Exchange Regimes for Horizontal Coupling -- 6.3.3 Implementation for Quantifying Daytime Sub-canopy Respiration -- 6.3.4 Implications for Spatial Heterogeneity of Sub-canopy Carbon Dioxide Concentrations, Gradients, and Horizontal Advection -- 6.4 Conclusions -- References -- 7 Dynamics of Water Flow in a Forest Soil: Visualization and Modelling -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Material and Methods -- 7.2.1 Measurements of Matric Potentials -- 7.2.2 Modelling Matric Potentials and Soil Water Fluxes -- 7.2.3 Comparison Between Measured and Modelled Matric Potentials -- 7.2.4 Visualizing Soil Water Fluxes -- 7.3 Results and Discussion -- 7.3.1 Matric Potential -- 7.3.1.1 Temporal Variability -- 7.3.1.2 Hydraulic Redistribution -- 7.3.1.3 Complexity of Measured and Modelled Matric Potentials -- 7.3.2 Soil Water Fluxes -- 7.3.2.1 Flow Patterns at Profile Scale and Their Influence on Soil Chemistry. , 7.3.2.2 Modelling Results and Preferential Flow at Catchment Scale -- 7.4 Conclusions -- References -- 8 Trace Gas Exchange at the Forest Floor -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Materials and Methods -- 8.2.1 Site Description -- 8.2.1.1 Wind, Temperature, and Radiation Measurements -- 8.2.1.2 Trace Gas Measurements -- 8.2.2 Modelling of Fluxes Near the Forest Floor -- 8.2.2.1 Parameterization According to Richter and Skeib (1984, 1991) -- 8.2.2.2 Parameterization According to Foken (1979, 1984) -- 8.3 Results and Discussion -- 8.3.1 Driving Forces of Subcanopy Exchange -- 8.3.1.1 Radiation -- 8.3.1.2 Temperature Profiles -- 8.3.1.3 Wind Profiles -- 8.3.2 Comparison of Measured and Modelled Fluxes -- 8.3.2.1 Friction Velocity -- 8.3.2.2 Sensible Heat Flux -- 8.3.2.3 Stability -- 8.3.3 Comparison of Modelled and Chamber Fluxes -- 8.3.3.1 Radon Fluxes -- 8.3.3.2 Carbon Dioxide Fluxes -- 8.3.4 Determination of the Coupling Situation at the Forest Floor -- 8.3.4.1 Water Vapor -- 8.3.4.2 Carbon Dioxide -- 8.3.5 Reactive Trace Gases -- 8.3.5.1 Ozone Fluxes -- 8.4 Conclusions -- References -- 9 Reactive Trace Gas and Aerosol Fluxes -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Materials and Methods -- 9.2.1 Trace Gas Flux Instrumentation -- 9.2.2 Aerosol Flux Instrumentation -- 9.3 Results and Discussion -- 9.3.1 Reactive Trace Gas Flux Measurements -- 9.3.1.1 Ozone Fluxes -- 9.3.1.2 NOx Fluxes -- 9.3.1.3 Fluxes of Additional Reactive Trace Gases -- 9.3.2 Aerosol Flux Measurements -- 9.3.2.1 Aerosol Number Fluxes -- 9.3.2.2 Size-Resolved Number Fluxes -- 9.3.2.3 Chemically Speciated Aerosol Fluxes -- 9.3.3 Comparison of Flux Observations and Models -- 9.4 Conclusions -- References -- 10 Isotope Fluxes -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Materials and Methods -- 10.2.1 Balances of CO2 and 13CO2 -- 10.2.2 NEE Partitioning and 13CO2 Iso-fluxes. , 10.2.3 Hyperbolic Relaxed Eddy Accumulation Method -- 10.2.4 HREA Measuring Systems -- 10.2.5 Measurement Sites and Campaigns -- 10.3 Results and Discussion -- 10.3.1 Differences in HREA Samples of CO2 and δ13C Up- and Downdrafts -- 10.3.2 CO2 Fluxes and 13CO2 Iso-fluxes -- 10.3.3 13CO2 Signatures and NEE Partitioning -- 10.3.4 Structure of CO2 Exchange Mechanisms over Forests -- 10.4 Conclusions -- References -- 11 Influence of Low-Level Jets and Gravity Waves on Turbulent Fluxes -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Material and Methods -- 11.2.1 Experimental Setup -- 11.2.2 Instruments: Principles of Operation -- 11.2.2.1 Windprofiler/SODAR -- 11.2.2.2 RASS -- 11.2.3 Data Calculation -- 11.2.4 Meteorological Situation -- 11.3 Results and Discussion -- 11.3.1 Low-Level Jets -- 11.3.2 Gravity Waves -- 11.3.2.1 Rotary Spectrum -- 11.3.2.2 Hodograph Analysis -- 11.3.2.3 Stokes Parameter Spectra -- 11.3.2.4 Gravity Wave Characteristics -- 11.4 Conclusions -- References -- 12 Development of Flux Data Quality Tools -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Materials and Methods -- 12.2.1 Data for This Investigation -- 12.2.2 Integral Turbulence Characteristics -- 12.2.3 Footprint Models -- 12.2.4 Energy Balance Closure -- 12.3 Results and Discussions -- 12.3.1 Integral Turbulence Characteristics -- 12.3.2 Footprints and Data Quality -- 12.3.2.1 Zero-Plane Displacement -- 12.3.2.2 Characteristics of the Underlying Surface -- 12.3.2.3 Footprint Climatology -- 12.3.2.4 Linking Footprint and Flux Data Quality -- 12.3.2.5 Coordinate Rotation -- 12.3.3 Energy Balance Closure -- 12.4 Conclusions -- References -- 13 Interaction Forest-Clearing -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Materials and Methods -- 13.2.1 Special Installations at the Forest Edge -- 13.2.2 Methods Applied for This Investigation -- 13.2.2.1 Turbulence Data -- 13.2.2.2 Wavelet Analysis -- 13.3 Results and Discussions. , 13.3.1 Horizontal and Vertical Fields at the Forest Edge -- 13.3.2 Coupling Regime -- 13.3.3 Coherent Structures -- 13.3.4 Penetration of Large-Scale Coherent Structures -- 13.3.5 Energy Balance Closure Problem -- 13.4 Conclusions -- References -- 14 Forest Climate in Vertical and Horizontal Scales -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Material and Methods -- 14.2.1 Vertical Profile Measurements -- 14.2.1.1 Long-Term Measurements -- 14.2.1.2 EGER Project -- 14.2.1.3 Vertical Coupling Regimes -- 14.2.2 Horizontal Profile Measurements -- 14.2.2.1 Advection Measurements -- 14.2.2.2 Horizontal Mobile Measuring System -- 14.3 Results and Discussions -- 14.3.1 Microclimate Within and Above a Dense Forest -- 14.3.1.1 Vertical (Turbulent) Exchange -- 14.3.1.2 Horizontal and Vertical Advection -- 14.3.2 Microclimate at a Forest Edge -- 14.4 Conclusions -- References -- 15 Catchment Evapotranspiration and Runoff -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 Materials and Methods -- 15.2.1 Hydrological Characterization of the Catchment -- 15.2.1.1 Data -- 15.2.1.2 Statistical Approaches -- 15.2.2 Principal Component Analysis of Time Series -- 15.3 Results and Discussion -- 15.3.1 Long-Term Budgets -- 15.3.1.1 Reliability of Long-Term Budget Data -- 15.3.1.2 Role of Vegetation -- 15.3.1.3 Relation to Residence Time and Size of the Groundwater Store -- 15.3.2 Short-Term Dynamics -- 15.3.2.1 Hydrological Signals Generated in the Topsoil -- 15.3.2.2 Hydrological Signals Propagating Through the Subsoil -- 15.3.3 Evapotranspiration in Hydrological and Hydrogeological Model Approaches -- 15.4 Conclusions -- References -- Part IV Modelling Studies of Energy and Matter Fluxes -- 16 Modeling of Energy and Matter Exchange -- 16.1 Introduction -- 16.2 Materials and Methods -- 16.2.1 Model Descriptions -- 16.2.1.1 FLAME -- 16.2.1.2 ACASA -- 16.2.1.3 STANDFLUX and SVAT-CN. , 16.2.2 Model Drivers and Input Parameters.