Note: Intro -- Research, Management and Policy -- Contents -- Foreword -- Acknowledgements -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Assessing biodiversity -- 2.1 Why assess biodiversity? -- 2.2 Biodiversity assessment techniques -- 2.2.1 Total species list -- CASE STUDY Discovery and conservation the Saola -- 2.2.2 Total genus or family list -- 2.2.3 Parallel-line searches -- 2.2.4 Habitat subsampling -- 2.2.5 Uniform effort -- 2.2.6 Time-restricted search -- 2.2.7 Encounter rates -- 2.2.8 Species discovery curves -- 2.2.9 MacKinnon lists -- 2.2.10 Timed species counts -- 2.2.11 Recording absence -- 2.2.12 Habitat feature assessment -- 2.3 Documenting rarities -- 2.4 Collecting -- 2.4.1 Labelling -- 2.4.2 Preservatives -- 2.4.3 Collecting plants -- 2.4.4 Collecting fungi -- 2.4.5 Collecting invertebrates -- 2.4.6 Collecting fish -- 2.4.7 Collecting amphibians -- 2.4.8 Collecting reptiles -- 2.4.9 Collecting birds -- 2.4.10 Collecting mammals -- 2.5 Ethnobotany -- 2.6 Atlases -- CASE STUDY Southern African frog atlas project -- 2.7 Habitat mapping -- 2.8 Remote sensing -- 2.9 Databases -- 3 Setting conservation priorities -- 3.1 Why set conservation priorities? -- 3.2 Prioritising species -- 3.2.1 Vulnerability to extinction -- 3.2.2 Taxonomic isolation -- 3.2.3 What is a species? -- 3.2.4 Flagship species -- 3.2.5 Introduced species -- 3.2.6 Likelihood of species recovery -- 3.2.7 Prioritising species within areas -- 3.3 Prioritising habitats -- 3.4 Hot spots of global biodiversity -- 3.4.1 Endemic Bird Areas -- 3.4.2 Centres of plant diversity -- 3.4.3 Important Taxon Areas -- 3.5 Prioritising areas and selecting reserves -- 4 Monitoring -- 4.1 Why monitor? -- 4.2 Bias and accuracy -- 4.2.1 Long-term data sets -- 4.3 Sampling -- 4.3.1 Stratified sampling -- 4.3.2 Monitoring plots -- 4.4 Indices and censuses -- 4.5 Counting recognisable individuals. , 4.6 Quadrats and strip transects -- 4.7 Distance sampling: line transects and point counts -- BOX 4.1 Estimating populations from point counts and line transects -- 4.8 Mapping -- 4.9 Mark-release-recapture -- 4.9.1 Frequency of capture -- BOX 4.2 Population estimates from mark-release-recapture -- BOX 4.3 Population estimates from capture frequency -- 4.10 Catch per unit effort -- 4.11 Monitoring plants -- 4.11.1 Total counts of plants -- 4.11.2 Quadrats -- 4.11.3 Seed sorting -- 4.11.4 Measures of vegetation density -- 4.12 Monitoring invertebrates -- 4.12.1 Direct searching for invertebrates -- 4.12.2 Beating for invertebrates -- 4.12.3 Water traps for invertebrates -- 4.12.4 Light traps for invertebrates -- 4.12.5 Emergence traps for invertebrates -- 4.12.6 Pitfall traps for invertebrates -- 4.12.7 Sweep, pond and t o w nets -- 4.12.8 Benthic cores for invertebrates -- 4.13 Monitoring fish -- 4.13.1 Fish traps -- 4.13.2 Gill and dip nets -- 4.13.3 Electrofishing -- 4.13.4 Transects and point counts for fish -- 4.14 Monitoring amphibians -- 4.14.1 Drift fencing and pitfall traps -- 4.14.2 Direct counts of amphibians -- 4.15 Monitoring reptiles -- 4.15.1 Mark-release-recapture of reptiles -- 4.15.2 Direct observations of reptiles -- 4.16 Monitoring birds -- 4.16.1 Direct counts of birds -- 4.16.2 Transects for birds -- 4.16.3 Point counts for birds -- 4.16.4 Territory mapping -- 4.17 Monitoring mammals -- 4.17.1 Direct counts of mammals -- 4.17.2 Transects of mammals -- 4.17.3 Mapping mammals -- 4.17.4 Trapping mammals -- 4.17.5 Dung counts -- 4.18 Monitoring environmental variables -- 4.18.1 Temperature -- 4.18.2 Rainfall -- 4.18.3 Water depth -- 4.18.4 Water flow -- 4.18.5 Evapotranspiration -- 4.18.6 Wind speed -- 4.18.7 pH -- 4.18.8 Underwater light -- 4.18.9 Salinity -- 4.18.10 Water chemistry -- 4.18.11 Soil characteristics. , 4.19 Monitoring human impact -- 4.20 Photographic monitoring -- 5 Ecological research techniques -- 5.1 Why carry out research? -- 5.2 Designing a research project -- 5.3 Experiments -- 5.4 Hygienic fieldwork -- 5.5 Determining habitat use -- 5.6 Radio tracking -- 5.7 Diet analysis -- 5.8 Ageing and sexing -- 5.8.1 Ageing plants -- 5.8.2 Ageing and sexing invertebrates -- 5.8.3 Ageing and sexing fish -- 5.8.4 Ageing and sexing amphibians -- 5.8.5 Ageing and sexing reptiles -- 5.8.6 Ageing and sexing birds -- 5.8.7 Ageing and sexing mammals -- 5.9 Pollination biology -- 5.9.1 Determining the breeding system -- 5.9.2 Identifying the pollinators -- 5.10 Marking individuals -- 5.10.1 Marking plants -- 5.10.2 Marking invertebrates -- 5.10.3 Marking fish -- 5.10.4 Marking amphibians -- 5.10.5 Marking reptiles -- 5.10.6 Marking birds -- 5.10.7 Marking mammals -- 5.11 Studying the fate of individuals -- 5.11.1 Measuring breeding output -- 5.11.2 Measuring mortality -- 5.12 Determining the cause of illness or death -- 5.12.1 Collecting material for examination -- 5.12.2 Autopsies -- 5.12.3 Identifying plant pathogens -- 5.12.4 Determining why eggs fail -- 5.13 Modelling population changes -- 5.13.1 Principles of population ecology -- 5.13.2 Creating population models -- 5.14 Risk of extinction -- 5.14.1 Processes in small populations -- 5.14.2 Population viability models -- CASE STUDY Estimating the population viability a re-established White-tailed Eagle population -- 5.15 Molecular techniques -- 5.15.1 Identifying individuals and relatives -- 5.15.2 Identifying species and populations -- 5.16 Ten major statistical errors in conservation -- 6 Diagnosis and prediction -- 6.1 Why diagnose problems? -- 6.2 A need for evidence-based conservation? -- 6.3 Diagnosing why species have declined -- CASE STUDY The Lord Howe Woodhen: diagnosis and recovery. , 6.4 Predicting the ecological consequences of changes -- 6.5 Environmental impact assessment -- 6.5.1 Strategic environmental assessment -- 7 Conservation planning -- 7.1 Why plan? -- 7.2 The planning process -- 7.3 The species action plan process -- CASE STUDY The UK Corncrake species action plan -- BOX 7.1 Writing a species action plan -- 7.4 The site management plan process -- BOX 7.2 Writing a management plan -- 8 Organisational management and fund raising -- 8.1 Why is organisational management important? -- 8.2 leadership and management -- 8.2.1 Leadership -- 8.2.2 Delegation -- 8.3 Types of conservation organisations and their problems -- 8.4 Collaboration between organisations -- 8.5 Meetings -- 8.5.1 Generating ideas in meetings -- 8.6 Crisis management -- 8.7 Fund raising -- 8.8 Grants -- 9 Education and ecotourism -- 9.1 Why educate? -- 9.2 Planning and running an education programme -- CASE STUDY Conservation stickers on Sumba -- CASE STUDY Public involvement in the conservation of Tiritiri Matangi Island, New Zealand -- CASE STUDY Global Rivers Environmental Education Network (GREEN) -- 9.3 Identification guides -- 9.4 Ecotourism -- CASE STUDY Managing tourism in the Antarctic -- 10 Bringing about political and policy changes -- 10.1 Why enter politics? -- 10.2 Campaigning -- CASE STUDY Water extraction in Mono Lake -- 10.3 Publicity -- CASE STUDY International collaboration to reduce pesticide poisoning -- 10.4 Negotiating and conflict resolution -- 10.5 Changing legislation -- CASE STUDY Reducing traffic damage to a roadside reserve -- 10.6 Meetings -- 10.7 Economic instruments -- 10.8 The importance of international agreements -- 10.8.1 Convention on Global Biodiversity (1992) -- 10.8.2 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973) (CITES). , 10.8.3 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979) (Bonn Convention) -- 10.8.4 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (1971) (Ramsar Convention) -- 11 Species management -- 11.1 Why manage species? -- 11.2 Manipulating wild populations -- 11.2.1 Creating breeding sites -- 11.2.2 Supplementary food -- 11.2.3 Hand pollination -- 11.2.4 Controlling parasites -- 11.3 Controlling predators, herbivores and competitors -- 11.3.1 Eradication of problem species -- 11.3.2 Control of problem species -- 11.3.3 Exclusion of problem species -- 11.3.4 Changing the behaviour of problem species -- 11.4 Captive breeding -- 11.5 Plant propagation -- 11.5.1 Seed storage -- 11.6 Re-establishments -- 11.6.1 Determining feasibility and desirability of re-establishments -- 11.6.2 Release protocol -- 11.6.3 Monitoring of re-establishments -- CASE STUDY Brush-tailed Phascogale re-establishment: learning from experiments -- 12 Habitat management -- 12.1 Habitat management or wilderness creation? -- CASE STUDY Wild nature in the Dutch Oostvaardersplassen -- 12.1.1 The need for research -- 12.2 Size, isolation and continuity -- 12.3 Disturbance -- 12.4 Retaining old habitats -- 12.5 Grazing -- 12.6 Burning -- 12.7 Hydrology -- 12.7.1 Understanding hydrology -- 12.7.2 Water management -- 12.8 Water quality -- 12.9 Habitat creation, restoration and translocation -- 12.9.1 Waterbodies -- 12.9.2 Trees and shrubs -- 12.9.3 Grass and herbaceous communities -- 12.9.4 Reefs -- 12.9.5 Translocation -- 12.10 Managing access -- 12.10.1 Zoning -- 12.10.2 Car parks and footpaths -- 12.10.3 Visitor centres and hides -- 13 Exploitation -- 13.1 Why manage exploitation? -- 13.1.1 Benefits of exploitation -- 13.1.2 Why does overexploitation occur? -- 13.2 Determining sustainable yields -- 13.2.1 Surplus yield models. , 13.2.2 Yield per recruit models.

Note: Intro -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- 1. Bird diversity survey methods -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Designing the fieldwork -- 1.3 Finding the birds -- 1.4 Standardizing the effort by time and space -- 1.5 Standardizing the effort by McKinnon's list method -- 1.6 Atlas studies -- 1.7 Estimating species richness -- 1.8 Conclusion -- 2. Bird census and survey techniques -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 What are bird surveys and why do we need them? -- 2.1.2 What is monitoring and why do we need it? -- 2.1.3 Useful sources of information -- 2.1.4 Begin at the beginning -- 2.1.5 Population size or index? -- 2.1.6 Survey boundaries -- 2.1.7 Census or sample? -- 2.1.8 Sampling strategy -- 2.1.9 Sampling unit -- 2.1.10 Field methods -- 2.1.11 Accuracy, precision, and bias -- 2.2 Sampling strategies -- 2.2.1 How many sampling units? -- 2.2.2 Which sampling units to count? -- 2.2.3 Using stratification -- 2.3 Field methods -- 2.3.1 Mapping -- 2.3.2 Transects -- 2.3.3 Line transects -- 2.3.4 Point transects -- 2.3.5 Rules for recording birds in the field -- 2.3.6 Choosing between line and point transects -- 2.3.7 Detection probabilities -- 2.3.8 Colonial birds -- 2.3.9 Counting roosts and flocks -- 2.3.10 Counting leks -- 2.3.11 Counting migrants -- 2.3.12 Capture techniques -- 2.3.13 Tape playback -- 2.3.14 Vocal individuality -- 2.4Conclusions -- 3. Breeding biology -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Choosing study areas -- 3.3 Measuring the success of individual breeding attempts -- 3.3.1 Finding and selecting nests -- 3.3.2 Recording the stage of a breeding attempt when it is located -- 3.3.3 Precautions to take so that nests can be relocated for checking -- 3.3.4 Nest checking -- 3.3.5 Determination of chick survival for species with precocial young -- 3.3.6 Estimation of nest success from nest check data. , 3.4 Determination of the proximate causes of breeding failure -- 3.4.1 Signs left at the nest -- 3.4.2 Wax or plasticine eggs in the nests of wild birds -- 3.4.3 Cameras -- 3.4.4 Temperature loggers -- 3.5 Using artificial nests to measure nest success and causes of failure -- 3.6 Measuring annual productivity -- 3.6.1 Why measure annual productivity? -- 3.6.2 Productivity from counts after the breeding season -- 3.6.3 Productivity from captures after the breeding season -- 3.6.4 Intensive studies of breeding -- 3.6.5 Indices of productivity from surveys during the breeding season -- 3.6.6 Use of simulation models -- 3.7 Timing of breeding -- 3.8 Measurements of eggs and chicks -- 3.9 Proximate and ultimate causes of breeding failure -- 3.10 Value of experiments to disentangle ultimate and proximate causes of breeding failure -- 4. Birds in the hand -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Welfare, ethical, and legislative issues -- 4.3 Catching the birds -- 4.3.1 The breeding season -- 4.3.2 Cage traps -- 4.3.3 Spring traps -- 4.3.4 A couple of nestbox traps -- 4.3.5 Noose-carpet traps -- 4.3.6 Mist-nets -- 4.3.7 Clap-nets and whoosh-nets -- 4.3.8 Canon-nets -- 4.3.9 Capture by hand -- 4.4 Individual marking -- 4.5 Notes on bird handling -- 4.6 The bird at close quarters -- 4.6.1 Age and molt -- 4.6.2 Sex -- 4.6.3 Weight -- 4.6.4 Color, for example, UV reflectance -- 4.7 Size -- 4.7.1 Body size -- 4.7.2 Wing -- 4.7.3 Tail -- 4.7.4 Tarsus -- 4.7.5 Tarsus-and-toe -- 4.7.6 Bill -- 4.7.7 Total-head -- 4.7.8 Claw, eye-ring, and other measures -- 4.8 Condition -- 4.8.1 Asymmetry -- 4.8.2 Relative mass -- 4.8.3 Fat reserves -- 4.8.4 Muscle protein -- 4.8.5 Physiological measures -- 4.8.6 Molt and plumage -- 4.8.7 Parasites -- 4.9 Biopsy -- 5. Estimating survival and movement -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Tag type and subsequent encounters -- 5.3 Survival rates. , 5.3.1 Radio-telemetry -- 5.3.2 Capture-recapture/resighting -- 5.3.3 Band recovery -- 5.4 Movement -- 5.4.1 Radio-telemetry -- 5.4.2 Capture-recapture/resighting -- 5.4.3 Band recovery -- 5.5 Summary and general recommendations -- 6. Radio-tagging -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Choice of techniques -- 6.2.1 Constraints on radio tagging -- 6.2.2 Applications and advantages -- 6.2.3 Considerations for tag attachment -- 6.3 Forward planning -- 6.3.1 Equipment -- 6.3.2 Mobile tracking -- 6.3.3 Software -- 6.4 Approaches -- 6.4.1 Pilot studies -- 6.4.2 Recording locations -- 6.4.3 Using location data -- 6.4.4 Demography -- 6.5 The future -- 7. Migration -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Migration systems -- 7.2.1 Mark-recapture -- 7.2.2 Morphology -- 7.2.3 Genetic markers -- 7.2.4 Stable isotopes -- 7.3 Migration behavior and strategies -- 7.3.1 Counting and observing migrants -- 7.3.2 Tracking migrants -- 7.3.3 Remote sensing: infrared device -- 7.3.4 Remote sensing: radar -- 7.3.5 Stopover -- 7.4 Physiology of migration -- 7.4.1 Body composition -- 7.4.2 Energetics -- 7.4.3 Endocrinology -- 7.5 Flight in wind tunnels -- 7.6 Orientation and navigation -- 7.6.1 Emlen funnels -- 7.6.2 Manipulating sensory input -- 7.6.3 Displacement experiments -- 7.6.4 Selection experiments -- 7.6.5 Circular statistics -- 7.7 Modeling migration -- 7.8 Concluding remarks -- 8. Information from dead and dying birds -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.1.1 Terminology-definitions and explanation -- 8.1.2 Methodology-an overview of techniques -- 8.2 The postmortem examination -- 8.3 Health and safety -- 8.4 Postmortem examinations (necropsies) -- 8.5 Laboratory investigations -- 8.6 Interpretation of findings -- 8.7 Legal aspects -- 8.8 Conclusions -- 9. Techniques in physiology and genetics -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Sampling techniques -- 9.2.1 Ethical considerations. , 9.2.2 Legal considerations-catching wild birds for research -- 9.2.3 Legal considerations-scientific experiments on birds -- 9.2.4 Housing and husbandry -- 9.2.5 Blood sampling -- 9.2.6 Administration of substances -- 9.2.7 Anesthesia -- 9.2.8 Implants -- 9.2.9 Laparotomy -- 9.3 Ecotoxicology -- 9.4 Endocrinology -- 9.5 Energetics -- 9.6 Molecular genetics -- 10. Diet and foraging behavior -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Diet composition -- 10.2.1 Direct observation -- 10.2.2 Nest observations -- 10.2.3 Remains and signs -- 10.2.4 Dropping analysis -- 10.2.5 Pellet analysis -- 10.2.6 Stomach analysis -- 10.2.7 Direct observations of crop -- 10.2.8 Regurgitates -- 10.2.9 Cafeteria experiments -- 10.2.10 Morphology -- 10.2.11 Neck ligatures -- 10.2.12 Emetics and flushing -- 10.2.13 Isotope differences between habitats -- 10.3 Determining prey size -- 10.3.1 Direct observation of prey size -- 10.3.2 Determining size from prey remains -- 10.3.3 Determining prey size from regurgitates -- 10.3.4 Measuring fragments in pellets, droppings, or stomach -- 10.4 Prey quality -- 10.4.1 Energy content -- 10.4.2 Prey digestibility -- 10.5 Foraging behavior -- 10.5.1 Time budgets -- 10.5.2 Time spent feeding per day -- 10.5.3 Night observations -- 10.5.4 Handling time -- 10.5.5 Intake rate and the functional response -- 10.5.6 Interference -- 10.5.7 Depletion -- 10.5.8 Prey availability -- 10.5.9 Exclosures -- 10.5.10 Mate provisioning and brood provisioning rates -- 11. Habitat assessment -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.1.1 Habitat associations -- 11.1.2 Documenting changes over time -- 11.2 Protocols -- 11.3 Physical environment -- 11.3.1 Temperature and thermoregulation -- 11.3.2 Rainfall and soil wetness -- 11.3.3 Slope, aspect, elevation, and topography -- 11.3.4 Type, chemistry, and penetrability of soils -- 11.3.5 Water chemistry -- 11.4 Vegetation. , 11.4.1 Mapping of broad habitat types -- 11.4.2 Species composition of vegetation -- 11.4.3 Vegetation architecture -- 11.5 Quantifying habitat selection -- 11.5.1 Comparing the relative abundance of birds or records of tracked birds in each of several habitats with the relative areas of the habitats available -- 11.5.2 Relating numbers or densities of individuals or records of tracked birds in spatial units to the habitat composition of those units -- 11.5.3 Comparison of habitat at places used by birds with that at places that are representative of the study area or known to be unused -- 11.6 Food abundance and availability -- 11.7 Predator abundance -- 11.8 Disturbance -- 12. Conservation management of endangered birds -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Process in the restoration of endangered species -- 12.2.1 Step one: know your species -- 12.2.2 Step two: diagnose causes of population decline and test remedial action -- 12.2.3 Stage three: intensive management -- 12.2.4 Stage four: population management -- 12.2.5 Stage five: monitoring -- 12.3 Broad population management approaches -- 12.3.1 Supplemental feeding -- 12.3.2 Enhancing nest-sites and the provision of nest-boxes -- 12.3.3 Disease control -- 12.3.4 Predator control -- 12.4 Intensive management of focal pairs -- 12.4.1 Close guarding and monitoring of nests -- 12.4.2 Clutch and brood manipulations -- 12.5 Reintroduction and translocations -- 12.5.1 Reintroduction -- 12.5.2 Translocations -- 12.6 Supportive management for bird restoration projects -- 12.6.1 Role of captive facilities -- 12.6.2 Model or surrogate species -- 12.6.3 Artificial incubation and hand-rearing -- 12.7 Integrated management -- 12.8 Discussion -- 13. Exploitation -- 13.1 Introduction: assessment of exploitation -- 13.1.1 Taking a conservative approach -- 13.1.2 Minimum estimates of population size. , 13.1.3 Estimates of harvest levels.