Note: Intro -- Environmental Impacts of Modern Agriculture -- Contents -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Modern Agriculture and Implications for Land Use and Management -- 1 Introduction and Overview -- 2 Agricultural Systems -- 3 Global and Regional Issues -- 3.1 Demand Side Factors -- 3.2 Supply Side Factors -- 4 Agricultural Land and the Role of Science and Technology -- 5 Case Study: UK Agriculture and Land Use -- 5.1 Trends in UK Agriculture -- 5.1.1 Agriculture's Contribution to UK Economy -- 5.1.2 Agricultural Land Use -- 5.1.3 Farm Size -- 5.1.4 Farm Yields -- 5.1.5 Agricultural Commodity Prices -- 5.1.6 UK Farm Incomes -- 5.1.7 Productivity of UK Farms -- 5.1.8 Demand for Food in the UK -- 5.1.9 Food Self-sufficiency and Food Security -- 6 Agriculture and Environment -- 7 Agriculture and Ecosystem Services -- 8 Agriculture and Climate Change -- 9 Agriculture and Energy -- 10 Future Prospects for Land Use in the UK -- 10.1 Scope to Release Land from Agricultural Production -- et al., 2005). -- 10.2 Technology Change and Land Use -- 11 Implications for Policy -- References -- Impacts of Agriculture upon Soil Quality -- 1 Introduction to Soil Quality -- 2 Soil Organic Matter Decline -- 3 Soil Compaction -- 4 Soil Erosion -- 5 Soil Biodiversity -- 6 Soil Contamination -- 6.1 Nutrients -- 6.2 Heavy Metals -- 6.3 Organic Pollutants -- 7 Soil Sealing -- 8 Soil Salinisation -- 9 Conclusions -- References -- Impacts of Agriculture upon Greenhouse Gas Budgets -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Current Agricultural Sources of Nitrous Oxide, Methane and Carbon Dioxide -- 2.1 Nitrous Oxide -- 2.2 Methane -- 2.3 Carbon Dioxide -- 3 International Reporting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions -- 3.1 Indirect Emissions - Is there a Gap between Top-down and Bottom-up Global Budgets? -- 4 Future Mitigation Strategies -- 4.1 Nitrous Oxide. , 4.1.1 Optimising Nitrogen Use by Crop Plants -- 4.1.2 Optimising Nitrogen Use by Livestock -- 4.1.3 Inhibitors -- 4.1.4 Soil Management and Tillage -- 4.1.5 Land Use Change -- 4.2 Methane -- 4.2.1 Methane from Ruminant Livestock -- 4.2.2 Dietary Opportunities -- 4.2.3 Avoiding Inefficiencies -- 4.2.4 Livestock Reduction or Replacements -- 4.2.5 Methane from Wetland Rice -- 4.3 Carbon Dioxide -- 4.4 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Potential: Combined Effects of all Gases -- 4.5 The Economics of Mitigation -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- Impacts of Agriculture on Water-borne Pathogens -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Policy Developments -- 3 Microbial Dynamics -- 3.1 Pathogens, Indicators and Health Risk -- 3.2 Catchment Microbial Flux -- 3.3 Flux Attenuation and Mitigation of Resource Impacts -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- Pesticides in Modern Agriculture -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Traditional Context of the Agricultural Uses of Pesticides -- 3 The Changing Nature of Pesticide Use from Earliest Agricultural Times to the Present Day -- 4 Risks to Human Health from Pesticide Use in Agriculture -- 5 Pesticide Use in Current Agricultural Systems - A Changing and Challenging Context -- 6 Future Pesticide Use and Approaches to their Regulation and Management -- References -- Balancing the Environmental Consequences of Agriculture with the Need for Food Security -- 1 Preamble -- 1.1 The Need for Food Security -- 1.2 The Importance of Environmental Sustainability and a Role for the UK -- 2 Agriculture's Environmental Impact and a Summary of the Issues -- 2.1 Some Terminology -- 2.2 Man-managed and Natural Ecosystems - Competition for Photosynthate -- 2.3 The Application of Science - Manipulating Genotype and Environment -- 2.4 Impacts from Fossil-fuel Use -- 2.5 Reactive Nitrogen -- 2.6 Water - Excess and Shortage -- 2.7 Contaminants and Pollutants. , 2.8 Avoiding Negative Environmental Consequences of Agricultural Practice - A Summary -- 3 Sustainable Intensi cation -- 3.1 Global Land Use -- 3.2 Anthromes and Anthropogenic Ecosystem Processes -- 3.3 Examples of Sustainable Intensi cation -- 3.4 Management of Biodiversity: Land Sharing or Land Sparing? -- 4 Land Use, Resource Management and Deliverables from Land -- 4.1 Understanding Interactions and Trade-offs -- 4.2 Units of Accounting -- 4.3 Some Examples of Trade-offs -- 5 A Systems-based Approach to GHG Balance -- 5.1 Agriculture as Part of the Problem and Part of the Solution -- 5.2 Fossil Fuel Substitution, Carbon Capture and Storage, Food Imports and the Cost of Valued Landscapes -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Positive and Negative Impacts of Agricultural Production of Liquid Biofuels -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Agricultural Production as Part of Biofuel Life Cycles and Life Cycle Assessment -- 3 Energy -- 3.1 Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency of Current Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels -- 3.2 Replacement of Fossil Fuels -- 3.3 Energetic Return on Investment (EROI) -- 4 Water Footprints of Current Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels -- 5 Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions and the Carbon Debt of Current Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels -- 6 Life Cycle Emissions of Pollutants Linked to Current Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels -- 7 Impact of Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels on Natural Ecosystems and Biodiversity -- 8 Effect of Current Agricultural Crop-based Liquid Biofuels on Food Prices and Hunger -- 9 Liquid Biofuels from Crop Residues -- 10 Conclusions -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Geoengineering of the Climate System -- Contents -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Why do we need Solutions to Global Warming? -- 1 Introduction - Life and the Evolution of the Earth's Atmosphere -- 2 The Atmosphere - The Most Valuable Resource on the Planet -- 3 The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming -- 4 What is Geoengineering? -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Are there Parallels to Climate Change and Geoengineering? -- 4.3 Scientific Respectability of Geoengineering -- 4.4 The Arguments for and against Geoengineering Research -- 5 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Storing Carbon for Geologically Long Timescales to Engineer Climate -- 1 Why is Carbon Storage Necessary? -- 2 The Approach and Controlling Factors -- 3 Methods of Reduced Emission Rates -- 4 Principles of Carbon Dioxide Removal (Negative Emissions Technologies) -- 5 Life-cycle Assessments -- 6 Biomass Availability and Sustainability -- 7 Carbon Dioxide Storage Availability -- 8 Summary of Carbon Storage Methods -- 8.1 Increased Terrestrial Biomass: Afforestation -- 8.2 Increased Soil Biomass: Biochar -- 8.3 Biomass Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) -- 8.4 Biomass Burial, Carbon Dioxide Use and Algal Carbon Dioxide Capture -- 8.5 Direct Air Capture -- 8.6 Silicate Weathering -- 8.7 Chemical Feedstock -- 8.8 Carbon Dioxide for Enhanced Oil Recovery (CO2-EOR) -- 8.9 Deep Sea Sediments -- 9 Discussion -- 10 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- The Global Potential for Carbon Dioxide Removal -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Plant-based CDR -- 2.1 Resource Supplies -- 2.2 Afforestation and Reforestation -- 2.3 Bioenergy Crop Supplies -- 2.4 Additional Biomass Supplies -- 2.5 Conversion Routes and Efficiencies -- 2.6 Combined CDR Potential -- 3 Algal-based CDR -- 3.1 Resource Supplies -- 3.2 Algal BECCS -- 3.3 Ocean Fertilisation -- 3.4 Combined CDR Potential. , 4 Alkalinity-based CDR -- 4.1 Enhanced Weathering - Land -- 4.2 Enhanced Weathering - Ocean -- 4.3 Direct Air Capture (DAC) -- 4.4 Combined CDR Potential -- 5 Overall CDR Flux Potential -- 6 Discussion -- References -- The Use of Artificial Trees -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Air Capture as an Engineering and Policy Challenge -- 3 An Example of an Air Capture Technology -- 4 Cost Issues -- 5 What Price can Air Capture Technology Deliver? -- 6 The Usefulness of Air Capture Technology -- 6.1 Carbon Capture from Air and Storage -- 6.2 Fugitive Emissions -- 6.3 Risk Management to Oil Resource Holders -- 6.4 Managing the Risks of Global Warming -- 6.5 Air Capture as a Tool for Geoengineering -- 6.6 Closing the Non-fossil Carbon Cycle -- 7 Discussion and Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Cooling the Earth with Crops -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Mechanisms -- 2.1 Biogeophysical Mechanisms -- 2.1.1 Albedo -- 2.1.2 Evapotranspiration -- 2.1.3 Emissivity -- 2.1.4 The Aerodynamic Roughness -- 3 Geographical Differences -- 3.1 Tropics -- 3.2 Temperate and Boreal -- 4 Historical Land Cover Change -- 5 Future Land Cover Change -- 6 Increased Crop Albedo -- 6.1 Albedo Values of Crops -- 6.2 Determinants of Albedo -- 6.3 Leaf Level Albedo -- 6.4 Canopy Level Albedo -- 7 Simulations with Climate Models -- 7.1 Crops in Climate Models -- 7.2 Climate Impacts -- 8 Yields -- 9 Other Crop Cooling Potential -- 9.1 Soil Carbon Sequestration -- 9.2 Biofuels -- 10 Priorities for Future Work -- 11 Conclusions -- References -- Engineering Ideas for Brighter Clouds -- 1 Introduction -- 2 A Reminder of the Physics -- 3 The Main Engineering Problems -- 3.1 Spray Generation -- 4 The Wafer -- 5 Filtration -- 6 Vessel Design -- 7 Justification of the Trimaran Configuration -- 8 Digital Hydraulics -- 9 The Mathematics -- 10 Costs -- 11 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References. , Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering -- 1 Introduction -- 2 How to Create a Stratospheric Cloud -- 2.1 Why the Stratosphere? -- 2.2 Means of Stratospheric Injection -- 2.3 Creating an Effective Sulfuric Acid Cloud -- 3 Climate Impacts of Stratospheric Geoengineering -- 3.1 Climate Models -- 3.2 Scenarios of Geoengineering -- 3.3 Global and Regional Temperature Impacts -- 3.4 Global and Regional Precipitation and Monsoon Impacts -- 3.5 Impacts of Enhanced Diffuse Radiation -- 4 Ethics and Governance of Stratospheric Geoengineering -- 4.1 Ethics and Governance of Research -- 4.2 Ethics and Governance of Deployment -- 5 Benefits and Risks of Stratospheric Geoengineering -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Space-Based Geoengineering Solutions -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Space-based Geoengineering -- 3 Lagrange Point Occulting Disks -- 3.1 Occulting Solar Disks -- 3.2 Occulter Orbit -- 3.3 Occulter Sizing -- 4 Lagrange Point Dust Cloud -- 4.1 Dissipating Dust Cloud -- 4.1.1 Solar Radiation Pressure -- 4.1.2 Dust Cloud Attenuation -- 4.1.3 Insolation Reduction -- 4.2 Anchored Dust Cloud -- 4.2.1 Four-body Problem -- 4.2.2 Zero Velocity Curve -- 4.2.3 Effect on Solar Insolation -- 5 Optimal Configuration for Lagrange Point Occulting Disks -- 5.1 GREB Climate Models -- 5.2 Out-of-plane Occulter -- 5.3 Optimal Orbiting Disk -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Solar Radiation Management and the Governance of Hubris -- 1 Introduction: Hubris, Piety and the Limits of Human Governance -- 2 SRM as Political Artefact -- 3 SRM Research and Attempts to Legitimate it as an Object of Governance -- 3.1 The Royal Society 2009 Report -- 3.2 Development of Normative Principles for Governing SRM Research -- 3.3 The Solar Radiation Management Governance Initiative (SRMGI) -- 3.4 Thresholds and 'Differentiated Governance'. , 4 From Saying to Doing: Governing SRM Research within a Framework for Responsible Innovation -- 5 A Social Licence to Operate? -- 5.1 Conditionality and Implausibility -- 6 Conclusions: Governing a New End of History? -- Appendix -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Intro -- Contents -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Chemicals Alternatives Assessment (CAA): Tools for Selecting Less Hazardous Chemicals -- 1.1 Introduction to Chemicals Alternatives Assessments -- 1.2 Common Traits Among CAA Paradigms -- 1.2.1 Step One: Hazard Assessment Through Literature Search and Data Identification -- 1.2.2 Step Two: Hazard Classification and Benchmarking of Relevant Data -- 1.2.3 Step Three: CAA Report Preparation -- 1.3 Life-cycle Assessment and Chemicals Alternatives Assessment -- 1.4 Chemical Alternatives Assessment Paradigms in Use: a Critical Evaluation -- 1.4.1 US EPA's Design for the Environment (DfE) -- 1.4.2 CPA's GreenScreen™ -- 1.4.3 Cradle to Cradle® (C2C) -- 1.4.4 TURI's Pollution Prevention Options Analysis System (P2OASys) -- 1.4.5 The Chemical Scoring and Ranking Assessment Model (SCRAM) -- 1.4.6 Chemicals Assessment and Ranking System (CARS) -- 1.4.7 SC Johnson & -- Son's Greenlist™ -- 1.4.8 PRIO -- 1.4.9 The Quick Scan -- 1.4.10 The Column Model and GHS Column Model -- 1.4.11 Evaluation Matrix -- 1.5 Challenges Facing Chemicals Alternatives Assessment Methods -- 1.5.1 Chemicals Alternatives Assessments and Data Gaps -- 1.6 Conclusion -- References -- European Initiatives for Selecting Sustainable Flame Retardants -- 2.1 Introduction - What are Flame Retardants? -- 2.1.1 Bromine and Chlorine -- 2.1.3 Nitrogen -- 2.1.4 Mineral Flame Retardants -- 2.1.5 Other Flame Retardants and Synergists: Borates, Zinc Compounds and Expandable Graphite -- 2.2 Environmental and Human Health Concerns About Halogenated Fire Retardants -- 2.3 European Activities Related to Non-halogenated Flame Retardants -- 2.3.1 Formation of the Phosphorus, Inorganic and Nitrogen Flame Retardants Association (pinfa) -- 2.3.2 Technology Drivers: Electronics Groups iNEMI and HDPUG -- 2.3.3 European Legislation: RoHS and REACH. , 2.3.4 GreenScreen™ -- 2.3.5 ENFIRO -- 2.3.6 Ecolabels -- 2.4 Conclusion -- References -- MBDC Cradle to Cradle® Product Evaluation and Certification Program -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.1.1 What is Cradle to Cradle® Design? -- 3.1.2 Long-term Goals - Short-term Actions and Transitions -- 3.1.3 The Cradle to Cradle Principles -- 3.1.4 Complementary Metabolisms -- 3.2 Product Certification Program Overview -- 3.2.1 Certification Levels -- 3.2.2 Program Categories -- 3.2.3 The Cradle to Cradle CertifiedCM Marks -- 3.3 Product Certification Overview -- 3.3.1 Scope -- 3.3.2 Continuous Improvement and Optimization -- 3.3.3 Material Health -- 3.3.4 Material Reutilization -- 3.3.5 Renewable Energy and Carbon Management -- 3.3.6 Water Stewardship -- 3.3.7 Social Fairness -- 3.3.8 Certification Program Summary -- Notes and References -- China's Implementation of Alternatives Assessment in the Building Industry: GIGA -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 China Context -- 4.2.1 Health -- 4.2.2 Barriers to Health -- 4.3 Resurgence of Health -- 4.3.1 Trust as a Catalyst -- 4.3.2 Wealth as a Catalyst -- 4.3.3 Access to Information as a Catalyst -- 4.4 Social Media and the Rebuilding of Trust -- 4.4.1 Perfect Storm of Change -- 4.5 Minimization Versus Regeneration in China -- 4.5.1 Regenerative Chemistry -- 4.6 GIGA (Green Ideas, Green Actions) -- 4.6.1 GIGA: the User's Perspective -- 4.6.2 GIGA: Green Algorithm -- 4.6.3 GIGA: Unpacking Alternatives Assessment -- 4.7 Impact: Process -- 4.8 Alternatives Assessment at Scale -- 4.9 Conclusion -- References -- A Collaborative Industry and University Alternative Assessment of Plasticizers for Wire and Cable -- 5.1 Background -- 5.2 Project Workplan -- 5.3 Selection of a Chemical/Chemical Class of Concern and Application -- 5.4 Pilot Project Team Formation -- 5.5 Screening Against the Red List. , 5.6 Using the Quick Chemical Assessment Tool (QCAT) to Screen Chemicals -- 5.7 Applying the GreenScreen™ -- 5.8 Conducting the Chemical Hazard Assessment Portion of the GC3 Project -- 5.8.1 Obtaining Data for GreenScreens™ -- 5.8.2 Reviewing Draft GreenScreens™ -- 5.9 Results -- 5.9.1 Results of the GreenScreen™ Assessments of Alternative Plasticizers -- 5.9.2 Technical and Cost Evaluation of Plasticizers -- 5.9.3 Lessons Learned in the Project -- 5.10 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chemical Hazard Assessment and the GreenScreen™ for Safer Chemicals -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Origins of the GreenScreen™ for Safer Chemicals -- 6.2 How it Works -- 6.2.1 Assess and Classify Hazards -- 6.2.2 Apply the Benchmarks -- 6.2.3 Make Informed Decisions and Drive Innovation -- 6.3 Continual Improvement -- 6.3.1 Advances to the GreenScreen™ Method -- 6.3.2 Developing Infrastructure for the GreenScreen™ Program -- 6.4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Hewlett-Packard's Use of the GreenScreen™ for Safer Chemicals -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Tools and Methods -- 7.2.1 Restricted Substance List (RSL) Screening -- 7.2.2 Risk Phrase or Hazard Statement Screening -- 7.2.3 Multi-criteria Decision Analyses -- 7.2.4 Life-cycle Analysis (LCA) -- 7.2.5 Risk Assessment -- 7.2.6 Scoring Schemes, Including the GreenScreen for Safer Chemicals -- 7.3 Integrated Alternatives Assessment Protocol -- 7.3.1 Step 1 - Identify Substances of Concern -- 7.3.2 Step 2 - Characterize Function and End Uses of the Substance -- 7.3.3 Step 3 - Identify Potential Alternatives -- 7.3.4 Step 4 - Assess Chemical Hazards -- 7.3.5 Step 5 - Evaluate Technical and Economic Performance -- 7.3.6 Step 6 - Apply Life-cycle Thinking -- 7.3.7 Step 7 - Approve Alternatives -- 7.4 Opportunities for Improvement -- 7.4.1 Methods -- 7.4.2 Infrastructure. , 7.4.3 Criteria for Preferred Material in Ecolabels -- 7.5 Conclusion -- References -- DSM's Sustainability Journey Towards a Proactive Ingredient Policy for Gaining Effectiveness in the Design of Better Products -- 8.1 General Introduction: Sustainability as Business Growth Driver Opportunity and Global Trends -- 8.1.1 Ecological Benefits: Transparent Assessment with Life-cycle Assessment (LCA) -- 8.1.2 Importance of Global Platforms and Partnerships -- 8.1.3 The Challenges Ahead for a Life Sciences and Materials Sciences Company -- 8.2 A Brighter Future with Composites -- 8.2.1 Leading-edge Performance -- 8.2.2 Lower Eco-footprint -- 8.2.3 Elimination of Substances of hazardous concern -- 8.2.4 BluCure™ Cobalt-free Curing Systems -- 8.2.5 Alternatives to Styrene Reactive Diluents -- 8.2.6 Introduction of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) -- 8.3 Facing the Technical, Performance and Cost Challenges: the Introduction of Halogen-free Flame Retardants -- 8.3.1 Overcoming Technical Challenges -- 8.3.2 Moving Forward -- 8.4 Conclusion -- References -- US Environmental Protection Agency's Design for the Environment (DfE) Alternatives Assessment Program -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Selecting an Approach for Chemical Substitution -- 9.3 PentaBDE Case Study -- 9.3.1 How DfE Conducted CAA for PentaBDE -- 9.3.2 Limitations of Original Methodology and Criteria -- 9.4 New CAA Methodology and Criteria: Steps to Conducting a CAA -- 9.4.1 Step 1: Determine Feasibility -- 9.4.2 Step 2: Collect Information on Chemical Alternatives -- 9.4.3 Step 3: Convene Stakeholders -- 9.4.4 Step 4: Identify Alternatives -- 9.4.5 Step 5: Conduct the Hazard Assessment -- 9.4.6 Step 6: Apply Economic and Life-cycle Context -- 9.4.7 Step 7: Apply the Results in Decision-making for Safer Chemical Substitutes -- 9.5 Application of New CAA Criteria. , 9.5.1 BPA Alternatives in Thermal Paper Partnership -- 9.5.2 Flame Retardant Alternatives to DecaBDE Partnership -- 9.6 Safer Product Labeling Program Case Study -- 9.6.1 Functional Use Concept Advances Greener Chemistry -- 9.6.2 Ingredient-class Criteria Define 'Safer' Chemicals -- 9.6.3 Partnership Process Fosters Teamwork in Safer Formulation -- 9.6.4 Development of Safer Alternatives -- 9.7 What's Next -- 9.7.1 The Community of Practice is Growing -- 9.7.2 Promoting Harmony in CAAs -- References -- NGO Initiatives in the EU - Identifying Substances of Very High Concern (SVHCs) and Driving Safer Chemical Substitutes in Response to REACH -- 10.1 ChemSec Background -- 10.2 Overview of NGO Initiatives - Putting REACH into Practice and Working with Companies -- 10.2.1 The SIN List -- 10.2.2 Substitution Support Portal - SUBSPORT -- 10.2.3 Transparency -- 10.2.4 Business Initiatives -- 10.2.5 NGO-Business Cooperation - Electronics -- 10.2.6 Engaging Financial Investors -- 10.3 The SIN List in Focus -- 10.3.1 REACH and Substances of Very High Concern -- 10.3.2 General Principles Used for the Compilation of the SIN List -- 10.3.3 How the SIN List Has Been Used and Received -- 10.3.4 Detailed Methodology -- 10.3.5 The First Assessment Process (SIN List 1.0) -- 10.3.6 The Second Assessment Process (SIN List 2.0) -- 10.4 Finding Safer Alternatives Through SUBSPORT -- 10.4.1 Background -- 10.4.2 The Web Portal -- 10.4.3 The Substitution Case Story Database -- 10.5 Conclusion -- References -- Alternatives Assessment in Regulatory Policy: History and Future Directions -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Rationale for Informed Substitution -- 11.3 Evolution of Alternatives Assessment Elements in Government Chemicals Reduction Policies -- 11.3.1 Chemical Restriction and Phase-out Policy Development -- 11.3.2 Alternatives Assessment Policy Development. , 11.3.3 Convergence of Chemical Restriction and Alternatives Assessment Policies.

Note: Marine Pollution and Human Health -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Marine Environment and Human Health: An Overview -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Conceptual Framework -- 3 Issues addressed in this Book -- 3.1 Pathogens -- 3.2 Pollutants -- 3.3 Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) -- 3.4 Public Health and Wellbeing -- 3.5 Scientific Challenges and Policy Needs -- 4 Towards a Systems Approach -- References -- Waterborne Pathogens -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Human Pathogens in the Marine Environment -- 2.1 Pathogens Introduced to the Oceans -- 2.2 Pathogens Indigenous to the Oceans -- 2.3 Differentiating Pathogenic from Non-Pathogenic Microbes -- 2.4 Pathogen Distribution -- 2.5 Pathogen Detection -- 3 Fecal Indicator Bacteria -- 3.1 Development and Usage -- 3.2 Limitations -- 4 Alternative Measures of Microbial Quality -- 4.1 The Ideal Indicator -- 4.2 Alternative Indicators -- 4.3 Microbial Source Tracking -- 5 Molecular Methods: A Revolution in Detection Technologies -- 6 Epidemiological Studies: Linking Microbial Measures to Human Health -- 7 Modeling Pathogens in Marine Waters -- 7.1 Modeling Aquatic Pathogens: The Example of Vibrios -- 7.2 Coupling Modeling and Remote Sensing -- 7.3 Use of Models in Management: Fecal Indicator Bacteria -- 8 The Future of Beach Regulation -- References -- Estuarine and Marine Pollutants -- 1 Context -- 2 Public Perception -- 3 Priority Substances and Legislation -- 4 Emerging Contaminants -- 4.1 Industrial Emerging Contaminants -- 4.2 Other Emerging Contaminants -- 5 Nanoparticles -- 5.1 Sources and Environmental Behaviour -- 6 Plastics -- 7 Complex Mixtures: Causality of Effects -- 8 Climate Change and Pollutants -- 9 Future Issues -- References -- Harmful Algal Blooms -- 1 Phytoplankton -- 1.1 Harmful Phytoplankton -- 1.2 Mechanisms of Harm to Human Health -- 1.3 The Scale of the Problem -- 2 Human Health Syndromes. , 2.1 Shellfish Poisoning -- 2.2 Causative Organisms and Toxins -- 2.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) -- 2.2.2 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) -- 2.2.3 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) -- 2.2.4 Other Lipophilic Shellfish Toxins (LSTs) -- 2.2.5 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) -- 2.3 Respiratory Illness -- 2.4 Fish Vectored Illness -- 2.5 Cyanobacteria -- 2.6 The Role of Harmful Phytoplankton in Influencing Human Wellbeing -- 2.6.1 Microflagellates -- 2.6.2 Other Dinoflagellates -- 2.6.3 Diatoms -- 3 Harmful Algal Blooms in UK Coastal Waters -- 3.1 Shellfish Poisoning -- 3.1.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) -- 3.1.2 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) -- 3.1.3 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) -- 3.1.4 Azaspiracid Poisoning (AZP) -- 3.2 Other Harmful Phytoplankton in UK Waters -- 3.2.1 Karenia mikimotoi -- 3.2.2 Other Dinoflagellates -- 3.2.3 Phaeocystis -- 3.2.4 Microflagellates -- 3.2.5 Diatoms and Silicoflagellates -- 3.2.6 Other Species of Pelagic Microplankton -- 4 Safeguarding Health -- 4.1 Monitoring -- 4.2 Are Algal Toxins a Public Health Problem? -- 4.3 Early Warning Methodologies and Mitigation -- 4.4 Introductions and Transfers of New Species -- 4.5 Climate Change -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Scientific Challenges and Policy Needs -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Key Science Challenges for Marine Environment and Human Health -- 2.1 Linking Ecosystem Integrity, Ecosystem Services and Human Health -- 2.2 Sustainable Industrial Development -- 2.3 Understanding and Mitigating the Impacts of Climate Change -- 2.4 Better Prediction Systems for Natural Disasters -- 2.5 Understanding the Distribution and Risks of Marine Biogenic Toxins (Algal Toxins) -- 2.6 Identifying and Reducing Viral and Bacterial Pathogens from Sewage and Agricultural Run-Off. , 2.7 Understanding Emerging Risks (e.g. Nanoparticulates from Industrial and Domestic Use) -- 2.8 Conventional Chemical Inputs (Industrial, Domestic, Agricultural and Road Run-Off), including Personal Care Products, Disinfectants, Pharmaceuticals, Novel Chemicals and Radionuclides -- 2.9 Endocrine Disruption -- 2.10 Pharmaceuticals from the Sea -- 2.11 The Marine Environment as a Health and Wellbeing Resource: the 'Blue Gym' Effect -- 3 Public Health Needs -- 3.1 Health-Related Indices of Environmental Impact -- 3.2 Seafood Safety -- 3.3 Environmental, Social and Economic Interactions (Quality of Governance, Overpopulation and Sustaining Critical Coastal Ecosystems) -- 3.4 Modelling - Need for an Integrated Approach in the Development of Effective Environmental and Public Health Policies on a Regional and Global Scale -- 4 Policy Needs -- 5 Discussion -- 6 Conclusions and Recommendations -- References -- Subject Index.