Note: Intro -- PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT -- Copyright -- Contents -- Preface -- Introduction -- Part I Background -- Chapter 1 Approaches to Resource Conservation -- Traditional Scientific Approaches -- Conventional Methods of Intervention for Natural Resource Management -- Participatory Approaches -- Evaluation of an Alternative -- Chapter 2 Participatory Action Research -- Action Research: A Brief History -- Applications of Participatory Action Research for Natural Resource Management -- Is Participatory Action Research Scientific? -- Conclusion -- Chapter 3 Conceptual Framework -- The Interpretationist Tradition -- An Interpretative Model -- The Extended Rationality Postulate -- The Constructivist Model -- Case Study Methods -- Chapter 4 The Resource Management Problem -- Tropical Deforestation -- The Setting -- PAET: Programa Agro-Ecologico da Transamazônica -- Part II The Participatory Action Research Experience -- Chapter 5 The Partnership with Farmers' Organizations -- The Starting Point -- Development of the PAET Program -- Activities Undertaken -- Results of the Partnership with Farmers' Organizations -- Chapter 6 Case Studies of the Multiple Stakeholders Platform Method -- Assumptions About the Multiple Stakeholders Platform Method Used in Municipal Participatory Planning -- Case I: Uruará -- Case II: Porto de Moz -- Case III: Altamira -- Lessons from the Case Studies -- Conclusions on the Platform Method of Participatory Planning -- The Potential of Participatory Action Research for Testing Methods -- Photo Essay -- Chapter 7 Results at the Farm Level -- Research Development on Perennial Crops and Agroforestry -- The Credit Debate -- Evaluation of PAET from the Farmers' Point of View -- The Learning Process -- Conclusion -- Part III Lessons from the Participatory Action Research in the Transamazônica. , Chapter 8 The Relationship Between Farmers and Researchers: Why There Was No Common Strategy -- Lack of MPST Interest in Sustainable Development and Better Management of Natural Resources -- The Farmers' Perspective -- Failure to Communicate? -- Evaluation of the Partnership Between Researchers and Farmers -- Chapter 9 Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon: A Comparison of Conventional Diagnoses and Diagnoses Based on PAR -- Conventional Diagnoses -- Proposals to Mitigate Deforestation -- Overview of Conventional Analyses and Solutions -- The LAET Diagnosis -- Proposals for Improving Farming Systems -- Summary of LAET's Diagnosis -- Comparison of PAR and Conventional Diagnoses -- Identification of Applied Research Priorities -- Chapter 10 Evaluation of the Participatory Action Research Approach -- Diagnosis -- Methods of Intervention -- Process Analysis -- Linking Action Research and Basic Research -- Results at the Field Level -- Scaling Up to the National Level -- Conditions for Developing New Participatory Action Research Projects -- Conclusions on Participatory Action Research -- References -- Appendices -- Appendix 1 Acronyms and Abbreviations -- Appendix 2 LAET Publications -- Author Index -- Subject Index.

Note: Intro -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Contents -- Abbreviations -- Part I: Theory -- To Understand Economics, Follow the Money -- To Understand Ecosystems, Follow the Energy -- Chapter 1: Two Views of Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation -- 1.1 Why I Wrote this Book -- 1.1.1 Dualities Still Impede Conservation Efforts -- 1.2 The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) -- 1.2.1 Targets for Conservation -- 1.3 Evolving Objectives -- 1.3.1 Literature Review -- 1.3.2 Updating Ecosystem Ecology -- References -- Chapter 2: What Can We Learn by Studying Ecosystems that We Can't Learn from Studying Populations? -- 2.1 The Predator-Prey Conundrum -- 2.2 The Serengeti Ecosystem -- 2.2.1 Evolution in the "Ecological Theater" -- 2.2.2 Predator-Prey Interactions Tell Only Part of the Story -- 2.2.3 Evolution in the "Thermodynamic Theater" -- 2.2.3.1 Ruminants -- 2.2.3.2 Adaptation of Ruminants in the Serengeti -- 2.2.3.3 Productivity in the Serengeti -- 2.2.3.4 Fitness Results from Synchronous Evolution -- 2.2.3.5 What Have We Learned? -- References -- Chapter 3: A Thermodynamic Definition of Ecosystems -- 3.1 Ecosystems in the Twentieth Century -- 3.1.1 Cycling of Strontium-90 -- 3.1.2 Cesium-137 in Food Chains -- 3.1.3 Recycling of Isotopes in Norwegian Sheep -- 3.2 Ecological Energetics -- 3.2.1 Is it Time to Bury the Ecosystem Concept? -- 3.2.2 A Thermodynamic Definition of Life -- 3.2.3 A Thermodynamic Definition of Ecosystems -- 3.2.4 The Phase Transition Between Order and Chaos -- References -- Chapter 4: Thermodynamic Characteristics of Ecosystems -- 4.1 Equilibrium -- 4.1.1 The Equilibrium Law -- 4.1.2 Thermodynamic Equilibrium -- 4.2 Open Thermodynamic Systems -- 4.2.1 Ecosystems Are Thermodynamically Open Non-Equilibrium Systems -- 4.2.2 Work Is Performed by Non-equilibrium Systems. , 4.2.3 Advantage of a Thermodynamically Open System -- 4.3 Ecosystems Are Entropic -- 4.4 Ecosystems Are Cybernetic -- 4.4.1 Cybernetic Systems -- 4.4.2 Economic Systems Are Cybernetic -- 4.4.3 The Ecosystem Feedback Function -- 4.4.4 Indirect vs. Direct Feedback -- 4.4.5 Deviation Dampening and Amplifying Feedback -- 4.4.6 Set Points -- 4.5 Ecosystems Are Autocatalytic -- 4.6 Ecosystems Have Boundaries -- 4.7 Ecosystems Are Hierarchical -- 4.7.1 Hierarchy in Physical Systems -- 4.7.2 Hierarchy in Ecological Systems -- 4.7.3 Common Currencies -- 4.7.4 Macro- and Micro-system Models -- 4.7.5 Why an Ecosystem Model that Includes Everything Is Not Possible -- 4.7.6 A Nested Marine Community -- 4.8 Ecosystems Are Deterministic -- 4.9 Ecosystems Are Information Rich -- 4.9.1 An Engineering Definition of Information -- 4.9.2 Information to Facilitate Exchange -- 4.9.3 High Energy Information -- 4.9.4 Low Energy Information -- 4.9.5 Information Theory -- 4.9.6 Genetic Information -- 4.10 Ecosystems Are Non-teleological -- 4.11 Criticisms of Ecosystem Models -- References -- Chapter 5: Ecosystem Control: A Top-Down View -- 5.1 Two Ways to Look at Systems -- 5.2 Composing and Decomposing Trophic Webs -- 5.2.1 Decomposers in Soil Organic Matter -- 5.2.2 Decomposers in Marshes and Mangroves -- 5.3 Control of Systems -- 5.3.1 Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up -- 5.3.2 Top-Down Exogenous Control -- 5.3.3 Exogenous Impacts and Stability -- 5.3.4 Top-Down Endogenous Control -- 5.4 Endogenous Control Through Nutrient Recycling -- 5.4.1 Autocatalysis -- 5.4.2 Control of Microbial Activity -- 5.4.3 Inhibition of Microbial Activity by Leaf Sclerophylly -- 5.4.4 Inhibition of Microbial Activity by Chemical Defenses -- 5.4.5 Inhibition of Microbial Activity by Ecological Stoichiometry -- 5.4.6 The Synchrony Principle -- 5.4.7 The Decay Law -- 5.4.8 Direct Nutrient Cycling. , 5.4.9 The Role of Animals -- 5.5 Marine Systems -- 5.5.1 Nutrient and Energy Recycling -- 5.5.2 Exogenous Control -- 5.6 Control in Lakes -- 5.7 Control in Managed Ecosystems -- References -- Chapter 6: Ecosystem Control: A Bottom-Up View -- 6.1 Species as Arbitrageurs of Energy -- 6.1.1 Relation Between Rate of Flow and Mass in Hydraulic Systems -- 6.1.2 Relation Between Population Biomass and Rate of Energy Flow -- 6.2 Equilibrium -- 6.2.1 Mechanisms of Adjustment -- 6.2.2 Adjustments and Climate Change -- 6.2.3 Bird Populations -- 6.2.4 Dis-equilibrium -- 6.3 Population Instability vs. Ecosystem Instability -- 6.4 Control by Interactions: Direct vs. Indirect -- 6.4.1 Indirect Interactions -- 6.5 Direct Interactions -- 6.5.1 Predator - Prey -- 6.5.2 Mutualisms -- 6.5.3 Competition -- 6.5.3.1 Competition Leads to Complementarity and Formation of Thermodynamic Niches -- 6.5.3.2 Competition in Terrestrial and Marine Systems -- 6.5.3.3 Ecosystem Competition -- 6.5.3.4 Nature, Red in Tooth and Claw -- 6.5.4 Decomposition -- 6.5.5 Parasitism and Disease -- 6.5.6 Commensalism and Amensalism -- 6.5.7 Persistence of Negative Interactions -- References -- Chapter 7: Ecosystem Stability -- 7.1 Background -- 7.2 A Thermodynamic Definition -- 7.2.1 Regime Shift -- 7.2.2 Metastability -- 7.2.3 Pulsed Stability -- 7.2.4 Resistance and Resilience -- 7.3 Species Richness and Functional Stability -- 7.4 Species Richness and Cultural Values -- 7.5 Keystone Species, and Population and Ecosystem Stability -- 7.5.1 Keystone Species in the Yellowstone Region of Wyoming -- References -- Chapter 8: Case Studies of Ecosystem Control and Stability -- 8.1 Walden -- 8.1.1 "Harmony in Nature" -- 8.1.2 Feedback Produces Nature's "Harmony" -- 8.1.3 Feedback Mechanisms -- 8.2 Perturbations in Amazonian Rain Forests -- 8.3 Top-Down Control. , 8.3.1 The San Carlos Project: A Small-scale, Low Intensity, Short Duration Disturbance -- 8.3.1.1 Nutrient Recycling -- 8.3.1.2 Feedback Control: Tree-fall Gaps -- 8.3.1.3 Feedback Control: Shifting Cultivation -- 8.3.1.4 Phosphorus Dynamics -- 8.3.1.5 Tropical Agriculture on Richer Soils -- 8.3.2 The Jarí Project: A Large-scale, High Intensity, Long Duration Disturbance -- 8.4 Bottom-Up Control -- 8.4.1 The El Verde Project -- 8.4.1.1 Perturbation = Ionizing Radiation -- 8.4.1.2 Conclusion -- 8.4.2 The Long-Term Ecological Research Project in Puerto Rico -- 8.4.2.1 Perturbation = Hurricanes -- 8.4.2.2 Conclusion -- 8.4.3 The Lago Guri Island Project -- 8.4.3.1 Perturbation = Elimination of Top Predators -- 8.4.4 The Biological Dynamics of Tropical Rainforest Fragments Project -- 8.4.4.1 Perturbation = Deforestation -- 8.4.4.2 Changes in Intact Forests -- 8.4.4.3 Species Response to Fragmentation -- 8.4.4.4 Conclusion -- 8.5 What Have Case Studies Taught Us About Stability of Tropical Ecosystems? -- 8.5.1 Tropical Ecosystems Are Stable -- 8.5.2 Tropical Ecosystems Are Unstable -- 8.5.3 Energy Flow in Tropical Savannas and Rain Forests -- 8.5.4 Insects in Tropical Ecosystems -- 8.6 Application of Lessons to Other Regions -- 8.6.1 Relevance to Temperate Zones -- 8.6.2 Relevance to Aquatic Ecosystems -- 8.6.3 The Experimental Lakes Project (Ecosystem Control of Species) -- 8.6.4 Lake Mendota Studies (Species Control of Ecosystems) -- 8.7 Case Studies as Tests of Thermodynamic Theory -- References -- Chapter 9: Entropy and Maximum Power -- 9.1 Entropy -- 9.2 Entropy in a Steel Bar -- 9.3 Thermodynamic Equilibrium -- 9.4 Entropic Gradients -- 9.5 Capturing and Storing Entropy -- 9.5.1 Evapotranspiration and Entropy Reduction -- 9.5.2 Life Is a Balance Between Storing and Releasing Entropy -- 9.5.2.1 Potential Entropy -- 9.5.2.2 Entropy and Life. , 9.5.3 The Law of Maximum Entropy Production -- 9.5.4 Energy for Metabolism as Well as Growth -- 9.5.5 Unassisted Entropy Capture Is a Unique Characteristic of Life -- 9.6 Entropy Storage by Ecosystems -- 9.6.1 What Causes Entropy to Be Stored? -- 9.6.2 Entropy Storage by Animals -- 9.7 Capturing Pressure -- 9.8 Entropy and Time -- 9.8.1 Time's Speed Regulator -- 9.8.2 Efficiency of Energy Transformations -- 9.8.3 Passage of Time for Cats -- 9.9 The Maximum Power Principle -- 9.10 Optimum Efficiencies for a Truck and Its Driver -- 9.11 Sustainability -- References -- Chapter 10: A Thermodynamic View of Succession -- 10.1 The Population View -- 10.2 The Thermodynamic View -- 10.2.1 Leaf Area Index and Succession -- 10.2.2 Power Output as a Function of Leaf Area Index -- 10.2.3 What Causes Changes in Leaf Area Index? -- 10.2.4 Maximum Entropy Production Principle -- 10.2.5 Successional Ecosystems Move Further from Thermodynamic Equilibrium -- 10.3 The Strategy of Ecosystem Development -- 10.3.1 A Problem with Odum's Strategy -- 10.3.2 Why Power Output Continues to Increase -- 10.4 Revised Definition of Maximum Power -- 10.4.1 Costs of Ecosystem Stabilization -- 10.4.2 Transactional Costs -- 10.5 Succession, Power Output, and Efficiency -- 10.5.1 Kleiber's Law -- 10.6 Are Ecosystems Spendthrifts? -- 10.7 Interactions Between Species Facilitate Increase in Power Output -- 10.7.1 Facilitation -- 10.7.1.1 Facilitation During Primary Succession -- 10.7.1.2 Facilitation During Secondary Succession -- 10.7.2 Tolerance -- 10.7.3 Inhibition -- 10.8 Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis -- 10.9 Nutrient Use Efficiency During Succession -- 10.9.1 Succession Following Logging Versus Following Agriculture -- 10.10 Thermodynamic View of Succession: Implications for Resource Management -- References -- Chapter 11: Panarchy -- 11.1 The Universal Cycle of Systems. , 11.1.1 Panarchy.