Note: Cover -- Contents -- Preface -- 1 Observation of clouds -- 1.1 Water vapor in the atmosphere -- 1.2 Where do clouds occur in the atmosphere? -- 1.3 Conventional classifications of clouds -- 1.3.1 High clouds (base height greater than 6000 m) -- 1.3.2 Middle clouds (base height between 2000 and 6000 m) -- 1.3.3 Low clouds (base height lower than 2000 m) -- 1.3.4 Clouds with vertical development -- 1.4 Precipitation -- 1.5 Observing clouds from an aircraft -- 1.6 Cloud classification according to the phase of water substance -- 1.7 Remote-sensing techniques of cloud observation -- 1.7.1 Radar and lidar techniques -- 1.7.2 Satellite techniques -- Problem -- 2 The shape and size of cloud and precipitation particles -- 2.1 Clouds as a colloidal system -- 2.2 Frequency of liquid water and ice clouds in subfreezing environment -- 2.3 Types of particles in clouds and precipitation -- 2.4 Sampling of cloud and precipitation particles -- 2.5 Cloud droplet size distributions -- 2.5.1 Mathematical expressions of cloud drop size distributions -- 2.6 Raindrop size distributions -- 2.6.1 Double-gamma distribution -- 2.7 Raindrop shape problem -- 2.7.1 Quasi-spheroid approach -- 2.7.2 Conical particle approach -- 2.8 Size and shape of graupel and hail -- 2.9 Shape and size of ice crystals and snowflakes -- 2.9.1 Habit of ice crystals -- 2.9.2 Magono-Lee classification -- 2.9.3 Dimensional relations -- 2.9.4 Ice crystal and snowflake size and shape distribution -- 2.9.5 Mathematical representations of ice and snow crystal shapes -- Problems -- 3 Molecular structures of water substance -- 3.1 Single water molecule -- 3.1.1 Electronic structure of the water molecule -- 3.1.2 Electric dipole moment -- 3.1.3 Water isotopes -- 3.2 Hydrogen bonds -- 3.3 Structure of water vapor -- 3.4 Molecular structure of ice -- 3.4.1 Ice-Ih -- Defects in ice-Ih. , Quasi-liquid layer on ice surface -- 3.4.2 Ice-Ic -- 3.4.3 Other forms of ice -- 3.5 Molecular structure of liquid water -- Problems -- 4 Bulk thermodynamic equilibrium among water vapor, liquid water, and ice -- 4.1 Thermodynamic systems -- 4.2 The first law of thermodynamics - conservation of energy -- 4.3 Closed systems -- 4.4 Adiabatic process for a closed system -- 4.5 A simple conceptual model for small cumulus cloud formation -- 4.6 Entropy -- 4.7 Open systems -- 4.8 Gibbs-Duhem relation -- 4.9 General condition of thermodynamic equilibrium -- 4.10 Clausius-Clapeyron equation -- 4.11 Phase diagram for water substance -- 4.12 Supercooling and the Bergeron-Findeisen process -- 4.13 Order of phase change -- 4.14 Calculation of the saturation vapor pressures -- Problems -- 5 Surface thermodynamics of water substance -- 5.1 The interface as a phase -- 5.2 Surface tension of liquids -- 5.3 Surface tension of solids -- 5.4 Mechanical equilibrium among curved interface systems -- 5.5 Contact angle and wettability -- 5.6 Component chemical potentials in an ideal gas mixture -- 5.7 The chemical potential of water in an aqueous solution -- 5.8 Ideal and non-ideal solutions -- 5.9 Equilibrium between two phases separated by curved interface -- 5.9.1 Generalized Clausius-Clapeyron equation -- 5.11 Köhler equation - equilibrium between an aqueous solution drop and humid air -- 5.11.1 Stable equilibrium regime -- 5.11.2 Unstable equilibrium regime -- 5.11.3 The Kelvin curve -- 5.11.4 The effect of different solutes -- 5.12 Surface of ice crystals -- 5.13 Summary -- Problems -- 6 Aerosol in the atmosphere -- 6.1 Aerosol size categories -- 6.2 Aerosol concentration -- 6.3 Variation of aerosol concentration with height -- 6.4 Aerosol size distributions -- 6.5 Brownian coagulation and the aging of aerosols -- 6.6 Physicochemical pathways of aerosol production. , 6.6.1 Primary and secondary aerosol -- 6.7 Sources of aerosol particles -- 6.7.1 Fragmentation of land surface -- Dust storms -- Biomass burning -- Volcanic activity -- Human industrial activity -- 6.7.2 Ocean surface process -- 6.7.3 Biogenic aerosols -- 6.7.4 Extraterrestrial source -- 6.8 Removal mechanisms of aerosol particles -- 6.8.1 Dry removal -- Gravitational settling -- Attachment on obstacle surfaces -- Particle coagulation -- 6.8.2 Wet removal -- In-cloud scavenging (rainout) -- Below-cloud scavenging (washout) -- Problems -- 7 Nucleation -- 7.1 Homogeneous nucleation of water drops -- 7.2 The population of embryos -- 7.3 Free energy of i-mer formation -- 7.4 Molecular dynamics simulation of homogeneous freezing of pure water -- 7.5 Heterogeneous nucleation -- 7.6 Cloud condensation nuclei -- 7.6.1 Chemical properties of cloud condensation nuclei -- 7.7 Nucleation of water drops on a plane substrate -- 7.7.1 Plane substrate -- 7.7.2 Curved substrate -- 7.7.3 Size dependence of cloud condensation nuclei -- 7.8 Electrical effect on the nucleation of liquid water -- 7.9 Ice nuclei -- 7.10 The chemical composition of natural ice nuclei -- 7.11 Ice nuclei concentrations -- 7.12 Criteria for effective ice nuclei -- 7.13 Ice multiplication -- 7.13.1 Fragmentation of ice crystals -- 7.13.2 Shattering of freezing drops -- 7.13.3 Hallett-Mossop mechanism -- Problems -- 8 Hydrodynamics of cloud and precipitation particles -- 8.1 Basic equations governing the flow past an obstacle -- 8.2 Flow characteristics and Reynolds number -- 8.3 Hydrodynamic behavior of falling cloud drops -- 8.3.1 Streamfunction formulation of flow fields -- 8.3.2 Stokes flow -- Drag force on a very small sphere -- 8.3.3 Oseen flow and Carrier's modification -- 8.3.4 Potential flow -- 8.3.5 Hadamard-Rybczynski flow past liquid spheres. , 8.3.6 Numerical solutions of flow past spherical drops -- 8.4 Flow past large drops -- 8.4.1 Drag coefficients for falling water drops -- 8.4.2 Fall behavior of raindrops -- Drop shape as a function of size -- Oscillation of large falling raindrops -- Drop canting -- Drop breakup -- 8.5 Hydrodynamic behavior of falling ice particles -- 8.5.1 Fall patterns of ice particles -- 8.5.2 Flow fields around falling ice particles -- Flow fields around vertically falling columnar ice crystals -- Flow fields around vertically falling hexagonal ice plates and broad-branch crystals -- Flow fields around falling conical graupel -- 8.6 Terminal velocities of falling cloud and precipitation particles -- 8.6.1 Cloud and raindrops -- Distance required for water drops to reach terminal velocity -- 8.6.2 Ice particles -- Problems -- 9 Diffusion growth and evaporation of cloud and precipitation particles -- 9.1 Diffusion of water vapor around a spherical water drop -- 9.1.1 Stationary water drop -- 9.1.2 Effect of latent heat -- 9.2 Diffusion growth of a stationary aqueous solution drop -- 9.3 Ventilation effect -- 9.4 Diffusion growth of ice crystals - electrostatic analogy -- 9.4.1 Ventilation effect on falling ice crystals -- 9.5 Habit change of ice crystals -- Problems -- 10 Collision, coalescence, breakup, and melting -- 10.1 Definition of collision efficiency -- 10.2 Theoretical determination of collision efficiency -- 10.3 Impact of turbulence on collision efficiency -- 10.4 Coalescence of water drops -- 10.5 Collision between ice particles and supercooled water drops -- 10.5.1 Dry growth, wet growth, and the Schumann-Ludlam limit -- 10.5.2 A general description of the riming process -- 10.6 Collision efficiency between ice crystals and supercooled drops -- 10.6.1 Preferential riming near the rim of the crystal -- 10.6.2 Riming on snowflakes. , 10.7 Growth rates of rimed crystals to form graupel and hail -- 10.8 Collision between ice particles -- 10.9 Melting of graupel, hail, and snowflakes -- 10.9.1 Melting of small frozen drops -- 10.9.2 Melting of large ice particles -- 10.10 Theoretical models of ice particle melting -- 10.11 The melting of snowflakes and the bright band -- 10.11.1 Fall attitudes of falling melting snowflakes -- 10.11.2 Morphological changes of snowflakes during melting -- Problems -- 11 Cloud drop population dynamics in the warm rain process -- 11.1 Continuous growth model -- 11.2 Stochastic growth model -- 11.3 Impact of the initial cloud drop size distribution -- 11.4 The condensation broadening of the coalescence growth size spectrum -- 11.5 The impact of giant and ultragiant condensation nuclei -- 11.6 Drop breakup effect on the drop spectrum -- Problem -- 12 Fundamental cloud dynamics -- 12.1 Cloud motions -- 12.2 Adiabatic ascent of an unsaturated air parcel -- 12.2.1 Lifting condensation level -- 12.3 Moist adiabatic process -- 12.4 Buoyancy and static stability -- 12.5 The adiabatic parcel model of cloud formation -- 12.5.1 Convection condensation level -- 12.6 Corrections to the parcel model -- 12.6.1 Burden of condensed water -- 12.6.2 Adiabatic slice model - a first correction to the test parcel model -- 12.6.3 Dynamic coupling of the parcel and the environment -- 12.7 Brunt-Väisälä frequency -- 12.8 Convection process -- 12.8.1 Thermals and plumes -- 12.8.2 Lidar observations of thermals and small cumulus clouds -- 12.9 Entrainment -- 12.9.1 Lateral entrainment -- 12.9.2 Cloud top entrainment -- 12.9.3 Effect of entrainment on convective clouds -- 12.10 Summary -- Problems -- 13 Numerical cloud models -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Types of cloud models -- 13.2.1 Dimensions of cloud models -- One-dimensional models -- Two-dimensional models. , Three-dimensional models.