Note: Causes And Environmental Implications Of Increased UV-B Radiation -- Contents -- Stratospheric Ozone Depletion: a Discussion of Our Present Understanding -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Background -- 3 Detection of Ozone Loss -- 4 Recent Observations of Ozone Loss -- 5 The Future -- 6 Conclusion -- 7 Acknowledgements -- Ozone Depletion and Changes in Environmental UV-B Radiation -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Historical Interest in UV-B -- 3 Determinants of UV at the Ground -- 4 Changing Factors in Transmission -- 5 UV Radiation at the Ground -- 6 Observations of UV Radiation -- 7 Longer-term Assessments of UV Irradiances -- 8 UV Forecasting -- 9 Conclusion -- 10 Acknowledgements -- Marine Photochemistry and UV Radiation -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Basics of Marine Photochemistry -- 3 Marine Photoreactants, Products and Processes -- 4 UV-B Radiation and Global Significance for Marine Biogeochemical Cycles -- 5 Summary and Conclusions -- Assessing Biological and Chemical Effects of UV in the Marine Environment: Spectral Weighting Functions -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Chemical Action Spectra -- 3 Biological Weighting Functions -- 4 Comparative Spectroscopy of Weighting Functions -- 5 Assessment of UV Effects -- 6 Summary and Conclusions -- Effects of Solar UV-B Radiation on Terrestrial Biota -- 1 Evolution of Terrestrial Biota and the Stratospheric Ozone Layer -- 2 Solar UV-B, Polyphenolics, the Pool of Organic Carbon in Terrestrial Environments, and the Balance between Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in the Earth's Atmosphere -- 3 Current Stratospheric Ozone Depletion: Increased Solar UV-B Radiation Reaching the Earth -- 4 Effects of Enhanced Solar UV-B Radiation on Terrestrial Plants, Adaptations of Terrestrial Plants to Solar UV-B: Evidence from Physiological Studies -- 5 Methodologies for the Study of UV-B Effects on Plants of Terrestrial Biota. , 6 Direct and Indirect UV-B Effects on Terrestrial Ecosystem Processes and Feedbacks, Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Relationships -- 7 Conclusions and Outlook -- 8 Acknowledgements -- Sunlight, Skin Cancer and Ozone Depletion -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Trends in Atmospheric Ozone and Ambient Ultraviolet Radiation -- 3 Human Exposure to Solar Ultraviolet Radiation -- 4 Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation on Skin -- 5 Risk Analysis of Human Skin Cancer -- Subject Index.

Note: Principles of Environmental Chemistry -- Contents -- CHAPTER 1 Introduction -- 1.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES -- 1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL PROCESSES -- 1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS -- 1.4 UNITS OF CONCENTRATION -- 1.4.1 Atmospheric Chemistry -- 1.4.2 Soils and Waters -- 1.5 THE ENVIRONMENT AS A WHOLE -- REFERENCES -- CHAPTER 2 Chemistry of the Atmosphere -- 2.1 INTRODUCTION -- 2.2 SOURCES OF TRACE GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE -- 2.3 INITIATION OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY BY LIGHT -- 2.4 TROPOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY -- 2.5 TROPOSPHERIC OXIDATION CHEMISTRY -- 2.5.1 Nitrogen Oxides and the Photostationary State -- 2.5.2 Production and Destruction of Ozone -- 2.5.3 Role of Hydrocarbons -- 2.5.4 Urban Chemistry -- 2.6 NIGHT-TIME OXIDATION CHEMISTRY -- 2.7 OZONE-ALKENE CHEMISTRY -- 2.8 SULFUR CHEMISTRY -- 2.9 HALOGEN CHEMISTRY -- 2.9.1 Tropospheric Halogens and Catalytic Destruction of Ozone -- 2.10 STRATOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY -- 2.10.1 The Antarctic Ozone Hole -- 2.11 SUMMARY -- QUESTIONS -- REFERENCES -- CHAPTER 3 Chemistry of Freshwaters -- 3.1 INTRODUCTION -- 3.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF AQUATIC CHEMISTRY -- 3.2.1 Introduction -- 3.2.2 Dissolution/Precipitation Reactions -- 3.2.3 Complexation Reactions in Freshwaters -- 3.2.4 Species Distribution in Freshwaters -- 3.2.5 Modelling Aquatic Systems -- 3.3 CASE STUDIES -- 3.3.1 Acidification -- 3.3.2 Metals and Metalloids in Water -- 3.3.3 Historical Pollution Records and Perturbatory Processes in Lakes -- 3.3.4 Nutrients in Water and Sediments -- 3.3.5 Organic Matter and Organic Chemicals in Water -- QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS -- FURTHER READING -- REFERENCES -- CHAPTER 4 Chemistry of the Oceans -- 4.1 INTRODUCTION -- 4.1.1 The Ocean as a Biogeochemical Environment -- 4.1.2 Properties of Water and Seawater -- 4.1.3 Salinity Concepts -- 4.1.4 Oceanic Circulation -- 4.2 SEAWATER COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY -- 4.2.1 Major Constituents. , 4.2.2 Dissolved Gases -- 4.2.3 Nutrients -- 4.2.4 Trace Elements -- 4.2.5 Physico-Chemical Speciation -- 4.3 SUSPENDED PARTICLES AND MARINE SEDIMENTS -- 4.3.1 Description of Sediments and Sedimentary Components -- 4.3.2 Surface Chemistry of Particles -- 4.3.3 Diagenesis -- 4.4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN ESTUARIES -- 4.5 MARINE CONTAMINATION AND POLLUTION -- 4.5.1 Oil Slicks -- 4.5.2 Plastic Debris -- 4.5.3 Tributyltin -- QUESTIONS -- REFERENCES -- CHAPTER 5 The Chemistry of the Solid Earth -- 5.1 INTRODUCTION -- 5.2 MINERAL COMPONENTS OF SOIL -- 5.2.1 Inputs -- 5.2.2 Primary Minerals -- 5.2.3 Secondary Minerals -- 5.2.4 Weathering Processes (See Also Chapter 3) -- 5.3 ORGANIC COMPONENTS OF SOIL -- 5.4 SOIL PH AND REDOX POTENTIAL -- 5.4.1 pH and Buffering -- 5.4.2 Soil Acidity -- 5.4.3 Soil Alkalinity (See Also Section 3.2.4) -- 5.4.4 Influence of pH on Soils -- 5.4.5 Redox Potential -- 5.4.6 Reduction Processes in Soil -- 5.5 CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN SOIL -- 5.5.1 Reactions in Soil Solution -- 5.5.2 Ion Exchange (Physisorption) -- 5.5.3 Ligand Exchange (Chemisorption) -- 5.5.4 Complexation/Chelation -- 5.5.5 Precipitation/Dissolution -- 5.5.6 Soil Processes -- QUESTIONS -- REFERENCES -- CHAPTER 6 Environmental Organic Chemistry -- 6.1 INTRODUCTION -- 6.2 THE DIVERSITY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS -- 6.2.1 Identifying Sources of Hydrocarbons -- 6.3 THE FATE OF ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS -- 6.4 CHEMICAL PARTITIONING -- 6.4.1 Important Partitioning Coefficients -- 6.4.2 Temperature Dependence -- 6.4.3 Partition Maps -- 6.5 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION AND DEGRADATION -- 6.6 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION THROUGH PHOTOCHEMISTRY -- 6.6.1 Light Absorption and the Beer-Lambert Law -- 6.6.2 Photolysis in Aqueous Systems -- 6.6.3 Photochemistry of Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs) -- 6.7 CONCLUSIONS -- 6.8 QUESTIONS -- REFERENCES -- CHAPTER 7 Biogeochemical Cycling of Chemicals. , 7.1 INTRODUCTION: BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING -- 7.1.1 Environmental Reservoirs -- 7.1.2 Lifetimes -- 7.2 RATES OF TRANSFER BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARTMENTS -- 7.2.1 Air-Land Exchange -- 7.2.2 Air-Sea Exchange -- 7.3 TRANSFER IN AQUATIC SYSTEMS -- 7.4 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES -- 7.4.1 Case Study 1: The Biogeochemical Cycle of Nitrogen -- 7.4.2 Case Study 2: Aspects of Biogeochemical Cycle of Lead -- 7.5 BEHAVIOUR OF LONG-LIVED ORGANIC CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT -- QUESTIONS -- REFERENCES -- Glossary -- Subject Index.

Note: Cover -- Preface -- Contents -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Road Vehicle Technologies and Fuels -- 1 Background -- 1.1 Fuels and Pollutants Emitted -- 2 Compression Ignition Engines -- 3 Spark Ignition Engines -- 4 Fuels for Transportation -- 4.1 Fuel Properties -- 4.2 Alternative Fuels -- 5 Market Share -- 6 Future Trends -- 6.1 Advanced Combustion Strategies -- 6.2 Cylinder Deactivation -- 6.3 Variable Compression Ratio -- 6.4 Variable Valve Actuation and Atkinson-Miller Cycles -- 6.5 Stop-Start -- References -- Gaseous and Particle Greenhouse Emissions from Road Transport -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions -- 3 Methane Emissions -- 4 Nitrous Oxide Emissions -- 5 Equivalent Carbon Dioxide Emissions -- 6 Particle Emissions -- 7 Future Trends -- References -- Local-acting Air Pollutant Emissions from Road Vehicles -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Fuel Type, Fuel Quality, and Vehicle Technology -- 2.1 Fuel Sulfur Reduction -- 2.2 Fuel Additives, Including Tetraethyl-lead, Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl, and Lube Oil Additives -- 2.3 Tailpipe NOx, CO, VOCs, and PM Emission Related to the Combination of Technology and Fuel -- 2.4 After-treatment Controls for Modern Vehicles -- 2.5 Fugitive VOC Emissions from Vehicles -- 2.6 Non-tailpipe PM Emissions from Vehicles -- 2.7 Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles -- 3 Evolution of Roadway Emissions -- 3.1 Primary and Secondary Pollutants -- 3.2 Changes in Pollutant Concentrations Downwind of Roadways -- 3.3 Key Air Pollutants Associated with Roadway Emissions -- 4 Impacts on Human Health -- 4.1 Health Impacts of Near-roadway Exposures and Urban Air Pollution from Traffic Emissions -- 4.2 The Contributions of Mobile Sources to PM and O3 in Cities around the World -- 5 Impacts on the Natural and Built Environments -- 6 Impacts on Remote Sites -- 7 Global Trends in Emissions. , 8 Future Technologies and Projected Trends -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Water and Soil Pollution Implications of Road Traffic -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Primary Pollutants from Road Traffic -- 2.1 Pollutant Sources -- 2.2 Influential Factors in Pollutant Generation -- 2.3 Primary Pollutants -- 3 Pollutant Processes -- 3.1 Pollutant Build-up -- 3.2 Pollutant Wash-off -- 3.3 Impact of Climate Change on Pollutant Processes -- 3.4 Pollutant-Particulate Relationships and Mobility of Particle-bound Pollutants -- 4 Impacts of Traffic Pollutants -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- Cardiovascular Health Effects of Road Traffic Noise -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Biological Mechanisms -- 2 Assessment of Traffic Noise Exposure in Epidemiological Studies -- 3 Health Studies of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults -- 3.1 Hypertension -- 3.2 Cardiovascular Disease Incidence, Morbidity and Mortality -- 3.3 Cardiovascular Risk Factors -- 3.4 Further Factors to Consider in the Interpretation of Epidemiological Studies: Confounding and Effect-modifying Factors -- 4 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Environmental Impact of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Energy Storage and Conversion Technologies -- 3 Hybrid Vehicles -- 4 Impact of Different Usage Cases -- 5 Life Cycle Assessment -- 5.1 Battery Utilisation -- 5.2 Vehicle-to-grid -- 5.3 Battery Lifetime and Degradation -- 5.4 Recycling and Second Life -- 6 Conclusion -- References -- Development Implications for Malaysia: Hydrogen as a Road Transport Fuel -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Energy Demand, Economic Growth and CO2 Emissions -- 3 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles and Hydrogen Pathways -- 4 Concepts in Fostering Hydrogen in Transportation -- 5 Simulation Experiments -- 5.1 Dynamic Computable General Equilibrium Model -- 5.2 Malaysian Social Accounting Matrix -- 5.3 Model Specifications. , 6 Scenarios and Results -- 7 The Way Forward -- References -- Latest Trends and New Challenges in End-of-life Vehicle Recycling -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Legislation on End-of-life Vehicle Recycling and Its Implications -- 2.1 Background on the Evolution of Legal Systems -- 2.2 Comparison of EPR-based ELV Recycling Laws -- 3 Popularization of Next-generation Vehicles and Their Impact on Vehicle Recycling -- 3.1 Significant Developments in the Popularization of Next-generation Vehicles -- 3.2 Trends in NGV Popularization -- 3.3 Effective Utilization of Waste Batteries from Next-generation Vehicles -- 3.4 Limitations on the Reuse and Recycling of Batteries -- 4 Effects of Second-hand Vehicle Exportation on International Resource Circulation and Emerging Cross-border Environmental Problems -- 4.1 The Two Sides of Second-hand Vehicle Exportation -- 4.2 Conditions and Characteristics of Second-hand Vehicle Exportation in Japan -- 4.3 Analysis of the Condition of Second-hand Vehicle Imports in Mongolia -- 4.4 Effect of Second-hand Vehicle Imports on Resource Recycling and the Environment -- 5 Environmental Pollution Caused by Improper End-of-life Vehicle Processing in Developing Countries: A Case Study on Lead Battery Recycling in Mongolia -- 5.1 Potential of Serious Environmental Damage -- 5.2 Overview of Field Investigations and Their Results -- 5.3 Challenges from a Case Study -- 6 Environmental Problems Associated with the Proliferation of Used Vehicles in Metro Manila, Philippines -- 6.1 Current State of Used Vehicles in the Philippines -- 6.2 Existing Legislation -- 6.3 Current Proposals to Undertake ELV Recycling -- 6.4 Future of ELV Recycling in Metro Manila -- 6.5 Challenges in Undertaking ELV Recycling in the Philippines -- 7 Recommendations and Challenges for the Future -- Notes and References -- Life Cycle Assessment of Road Vehicles. , 1 Life Cycle Assessment: A General Concept -- 1.1 Definition of the Goal and Scope of the Assessment -- 1.2 Life Cycle Inventory -- 1.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment -- 1.4 Interpretation of Results and Conclusions -- 2 Life Cycle Analysis: Review of the State-of-the-art -- 3 Life Cycle Analysis of Road Vehicles -- 3.1 Material Life Cycle of Vehicles -- 3.2 Fuel Life Cycle of Vehicles -- 3.3 Vehicle Use Phase -- 4 Uncertainties and Limitations -- 5 Practical Example of Life Cycle Assessment: Comparison of Fuel Types for Cars -- 6 Life Cycle Assessment and the Role of the Road Transport Sector in Urban Air Quality -- 7 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Air Quality in Urban Environments -- Contents -- Urban Air Pollution Climates throughout the World -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Emission and Formation of Urban Air Pollution -- 1.2 Urban Pollution Levels and Indicators -- 2 Sources in the Vicinity of the City -- 3 Impact of the Geography, Topography and Meteorology -- 3.1 Geography -- 3.2 Topography -- 3.3 Meteorology -- 4 Pollutant Dispersion in Urban Streets (see also chapter by Salmond and McKendry) -- 5 Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution in Urban Areas (see also chapter by Bloss) -- 6 Particle Pollution in Urban Areas -- 6.1 Particle Mass Concentrations -- 6.2 Particle Number Concentrations -- 6.3 Importance of Measurement Location -- 6.4 Contribution from Natural Processes -- 7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in Urban Areas -- 7.1 Sources and Emissions -- 7.2 Sampling Artefacts -- 7.3 Long Range Transport -- 7.4 Future Requirements -- 8 Trace Elements, including Heavy Metals in Urban Areas -- 8.1 Heavy Metals -- 8.2 Trace Elements -- 8.3 Recommendations for Modelling -- 9 Conclusions -- References -- Influences of Meteorology on Air Pollution Concentrations and Processes in Urban Areas -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Polluted Urban Atmosphere -- 3 The Urban Canopy Layer -- 3.1 Emissions, Intra-Urban Variability and Data Sources -- 3.2 Flow Patterns within the Urban Canopy Layer -- 3.3 Street Canyons -- 3.4 Vertical Exchange Processes: Coupling the UCL to the UBL -- 4 Larger Scale Processes Affecting Urban Air Pollution -- 4.1 Mesoscale Flows -- 4.2 Regional Transport -- 4.3 Synoptic Scales -- 4.4 Global Scales and "Chemical Weather" -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Atmospheric Chemical Processes of Importance in Cities -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Emissions in the City Environment -- 3 Dynamic Considerations -- 4 Gas-phase Chemical Processing -- 4.1 NOx-Ozone Interactions. , 4.2 Oxidant Radicals and Ozone Production -- 4.3 Night-Time Processes -- 4.4 Timescales of Ozone Production -- 4.5 Analysis of Ozone Sources -- 4.6 Limits on Ozone Production: NOx-Limited and VOC-Limited -- 5 Modifications Particular to the Urban Environment -- 5.1 Radical Sources -- 5.2 VOC Speciation and Abundance -- 5.3 Primary Emissions of NO2 -- 6 Particulate Phase Chemistry -- 6.1 Chemical Composition -- 6.2 Secondary Particle Formation -- 6.3 Other Impacts of Aerosol -- 7 Modelling Urban Atmospheric Chemistry -- 8 Conclusions -- References -- Air Pollution in Underground Railway Systems -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Physical and Chemical Properties -- 2.1 Particle Mass and Number Concentrations -- 2.2 Time Variation -- 2.3 Chemical Composition -- 2.4 Size Distributions -- 2.5 Morphology and Speciation -- 3 Emission Sources -- 4 Consequences for Human Health -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Human Exposure: Indoor and Outdoor -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Characteristics of Outdoor and Indoor Exposure -- 2.1 Outdoor Exposure -- 2.2 Indoor Exposure -- 2.3 Time-Activity Patterns -- 2.4 Indoor-Outdoor Relationships -- 3 Exposure Assessment -- 3.1 Exposure Monitoring -- 3.1.1 Monitoring Networks -- 3.1.2 Personal Monitoring -- 3.1.3 Biomonitoring -- 3.2 Exposure Modelling -- 3.2.1 Proximity and Buffer Zone Models -- 3.2.2 Dispersion and Photochemical Air Quality Models -- 3.2.3 Geostatistical Interpolation and Land-Use Regression Models -- 3.2.4 Receptor-Oriented Models -- 3.2.5 Time-Activity (or Micro-Environmental) Modelling -- 3.3 Modelling Uncertainty -- 4 Evidence from Personal Exposure Surveys in Urban Areas -- 4.1 North American Studies -- 4.2 European Studies -- 5 Role of Exposure Assessment in Regulatory Control of Air Pollution -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Health Effects of Urban Pollution -- 1 Introduction. , 2 Exposure to Air Pollutants -- 3 Epidemiological Approaches -- 3.1 Time-Series Studies -- 3.2 Intervention Studies -- 3.3 Cohort Studies -- 4 Particulate Matter -- 5 Nitrogen Dioxide -- 6 Sulfur Dioxide -- 7 Ozone -- 8 Carbon Monoxide -- 9 Carcinogenic Air Pollutants found in Urban Areas -- References -- The Policy Response to Improving Urban Air Quality -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Policy and the Evidence Base after the Smog Episodes of 1952 and 1962 -- 3 The Development of Strategies in the UK and Europe -- 4 Policy Instruments which Reduce Emissions -- 5 Future Developments in Air Quality Management Policies -- 5.1 Exposure Reduction -- 5.2 Links and Co-benefits with Climate Change Policies -- Disclaimer -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Front Cover -- Highway Pollution -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Chapter 1. The Influence of Highway-Related Pollutants on Environmental Quality -- Chapter 2. Highway Pollutant Monitoring -- Chapter 3. Atmospheric Dispersion and Deposition Modelling -- Chapter 4. Highway Runoff Transport Modelling -- Chapter 5. Highway Runoff Quality, Environmental Impacts and Control -- Chapter 6. Quantitative Determination of Highway Emissions in the Air using Receptor Models -- Chapter 7. Human Health Effects of Highway-Related Pollutants -- Chapter 8. Effects of Highway Pollutants upon Terrestrial Ecosystems -- Chapter 9. Noise Pollution -- Chapter 10. The Development of Emission Control Technology for Motor Vehicles -- Chapter 11. Highway Runoff Quality Management by Real Time Control -- Chapter 12. Legislation Relating to Highway Pollution -- Appendix: Environmental Quality Standards -- Index.

Note: Cover -- Preface -- Contents -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Global Atmosphere - The Antarctic Ozone Hole -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Observations of Antarctic Ozone -- 3 Causes of Antarctic Ozone Depletion -- 3.1 Dynamical Preconditioning -- 3.2 Polar Stratospheric Clouds -- 3.3 Catalytic Ozone Loss Cycles -- 3.4 Modelling of Polar Ozone Depletion -- 4 Ozone Depletion at Other Latitudes -- 4.1 Arctic -- 4.2 Mid-latitudes -- 4.3 Tropics -- 5 Regulation and Control: The Montreal Protocol -- 5.1 Chlorine and Bromine Source Gases -- 5.2 The Montreal Protocol -- 5.3 Reasons for Success of the Montreal Protocol -- 5.4 Climate Benefit of the Montreal Protocol -- 6 Outlook -- 6.1 Very Short-lived Species -- 6.2 Recovery of the Ozone Layer -- 6.3 Impact of Ozone Depletion on Surface Climate -- 7 Summary -- References -- Global Atmosphere - Greenhouse Gases -- 1 The Greenhouse Effect -- 1.1 What is the Greenhouse Effect? -- 1.2 Radiative Forcing -- 1.3 Uncertainty -- 1.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions -- 1.5 Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations -- 1.6 The Consequences of Climate Forcing -- 2 The International Response to Climate Change -- 2.1 The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -- 2.2 Industrialised and Developing Countries -- 2.3 The Kyoto Protocol -- 2.4 Post-Kyoto Protocol -- 2.5 Unilateral and Bilateral Initiatives -- 2.6 Mobilizing Climate Finance -- 3 GHG Emissions Data: Measurement, Reporting and Verification -- 3.1 Role of Emissions Inventories -- 3.2 Policy and Inventories -- 3.3 Sub-national and City Inventories -- 3.4 Inventory Verification -- 4 Science and Policy Challenges -- 4.1 Benchmarks -- 4.2 Growth -- 4.3 Short-lived Climate Forcing Agents -- 4.4 Credibility -- 4.5 Political Economy -- 4.6 Outsourcing Emissions -- 5 The Energy Sector and Technology -- 5.1 Technology Types -- 5.2 Market Potential and Challenges. , 6 What does the Future Hold? -- 6.1 GHG Emissions -- 6.2 The Global Environment -- 6.3 Overcoming the Barriers to Effective Action -- References -- Trends in Local Air Quality 1970-2014 -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The United Kingdom -- 2.1 Trends in Emissions in 1970 -- 2.2 Ambient Air Monitoring -- 2.3 Trends in Airborne Concentrations from 1970 -- 3 The United States of America -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Trends in Emission -- 3.3 Trends in Airborne Concentrations -- 3.4 Conclusions -- 4 Less Developed Countries: China as a Case Study -- 4.1 Trends in Emissions since 1970 -- 4.2 Ambient Air Monitoring - Development of the Networks -- 4.3 Trends in Airborne Concentrations -- 4.4 Commentary upon Differences in Trends in Emissions and Air Quality -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Mercury and Lead -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Anthropogenic Insult -- 3 The Global Biogeochemical Cycles of Mercury and Lead -- 3.1 Mercury Cycling in Aquatic Systems -- 3.2 Lead in the Biosphere -- 4 Policy Response and Impact -- 4.1 Lead -- 4.2 Mercury -- 5 Trends in the Future -- References -- Persistent Organic Pollutants -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Stockholm Convention on POPs -- 3 POPs Criteria -- 4 Sources and Applications of POPs -- 4.1 Pesticide POPs -- 4.2 Byproduct POPs -- 4.3 Industrial Chemicals -- 4.4 Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) -- 5 Toxicity/Adverse Effects of POPs -- 5.1 Ecotoxicity -- 5.2 Human Toxicity -- 5.3 Exposure Pathways and Combined Adverse Effects -- 6 Long-range Transport of POPs -- 6.1 Atmospheric Transport -- 6.2 The ''Grasshopper" Effect -- 6.3 Oceanic Currents -- 6.4 Migratory Animals -- 7 Temporal Trends - Has Legislation Really Worked? -- 7.1 Legacy POPs -- 7.2 Newer POPs -- 8 Climate Change and POPs - Future Scenario -- 9 Managing the Problem -- 10 Concluding Remarks -- References. , Emerging Chemical Contaminants: How Chemical Development Outpaces Impact Assessment -- 1 Chemical Ubiquity -- 2 Birth of the Chemical Industry -- 3 Birth of the Pharmaceutical Industry -- 4 Discovery of Estrogens in Water -- 5 Ubiquity of Chemicals in the Environment -- 6 Formation of New and Previously Unknown Products -- 7 Regulatory History and Current Framework in the US -- 8 Evolution in Analytical Methodologies -- 9 Implications for Water Sustainability -- References -- A Change of Emphasis: Waste to Resource Management -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Application of the Waste Hierarchy -- 3 Regulatory and Legal Aspects -- 4 Collection of Wastes -- 5 Trends in Waste Arisings -- 5.1 Sources and Composition -- 6 Methods of Waste Treatment and Disposal -- 6.1 Disposal -- 6.2 Energy Recovery -- 6.3 Recycling and Composting -- 6.4 Reuse -- 6.5 Prevention and Minimisation -- 7 Specific Waste Streams -- 8 Environmental Impacts of Waste Management -- 9 The Emergence of the Circular Economy -- 10 Summary -- References -- From ''Dilute and Disperse'' to ''Recycle & -- Reuse'' - Changes in Attitude and Practice of Effluent Management -- 1 Effluent Discharges Before 1972-The Historical Background -- 2 Developments in the Regulatory Environment -- 2.1 Pollutants Don't Recognise Political Boundaries -- 2.2 Integration across the Water Cycle is Desirable -- 2.3 Pollutants have Many Sources and Don't Stay Where They are Put -- 3 Putting the Theories into Practice -- 3.1 ''Dilution is the solution to pollution -- 3.2 Increasing Concern about Persistence -- 3.3 A European Consensus -- 4 Effluent Management in the 21st Century -- 4.1 Water Conservation and Reuse -- 4.2 Advanced Effluent Treatment -- 4.3 Green Chemistry -- 4.4 21st Century Regulatory Processes -- 5 Improvements in the Environment Since 1970 -- 6 Future Prospects -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Intro -- Contents -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Chemicals Alternatives Assessment (CAA): Tools for Selecting Less Hazardous Chemicals -- 1.1 Introduction to Chemicals Alternatives Assessments -- 1.2 Common Traits Among CAA Paradigms -- 1.2.1 Step One: Hazard Assessment Through Literature Search and Data Identification -- 1.2.2 Step Two: Hazard Classification and Benchmarking of Relevant Data -- 1.2.3 Step Three: CAA Report Preparation -- 1.3 Life-cycle Assessment and Chemicals Alternatives Assessment -- 1.4 Chemical Alternatives Assessment Paradigms in Use: a Critical Evaluation -- 1.4.1 US EPA's Design for the Environment (DfE) -- 1.4.2 CPA's GreenScreen™ -- 1.4.3 Cradle to Cradle® (C2C) -- 1.4.4 TURI's Pollution Prevention Options Analysis System (P2OASys) -- 1.4.5 The Chemical Scoring and Ranking Assessment Model (SCRAM) -- 1.4.6 Chemicals Assessment and Ranking System (CARS) -- 1.4.7 SC Johnson & -- Son's Greenlist™ -- 1.4.8 PRIO -- 1.4.9 The Quick Scan -- 1.4.10 The Column Model and GHS Column Model -- 1.4.11 Evaluation Matrix -- 1.5 Challenges Facing Chemicals Alternatives Assessment Methods -- 1.5.1 Chemicals Alternatives Assessments and Data Gaps -- 1.6 Conclusion -- References -- European Initiatives for Selecting Sustainable Flame Retardants -- 2.1 Introduction - What are Flame Retardants? -- 2.1.1 Bromine and Chlorine -- 2.1.3 Nitrogen -- 2.1.4 Mineral Flame Retardants -- 2.1.5 Other Flame Retardants and Synergists: Borates, Zinc Compounds and Expandable Graphite -- 2.2 Environmental and Human Health Concerns About Halogenated Fire Retardants -- 2.3 European Activities Related to Non-halogenated Flame Retardants -- 2.3.1 Formation of the Phosphorus, Inorganic and Nitrogen Flame Retardants Association (pinfa) -- 2.3.2 Technology Drivers: Electronics Groups iNEMI and HDPUG -- 2.3.3 European Legislation: RoHS and REACH. , 2.3.4 GreenScreen™ -- 2.3.5 ENFIRO -- 2.3.6 Ecolabels -- 2.4 Conclusion -- References -- MBDC Cradle to Cradle® Product Evaluation and Certification Program -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.1.1 What is Cradle to Cradle® Design? -- 3.1.2 Long-term Goals - Short-term Actions and Transitions -- 3.1.3 The Cradle to Cradle Principles -- 3.1.4 Complementary Metabolisms -- 3.2 Product Certification Program Overview -- 3.2.1 Certification Levels -- 3.2.2 Program Categories -- 3.2.3 The Cradle to Cradle CertifiedCM Marks -- 3.3 Product Certification Overview -- 3.3.1 Scope -- 3.3.2 Continuous Improvement and Optimization -- 3.3.3 Material Health -- 3.3.4 Material Reutilization -- 3.3.5 Renewable Energy and Carbon Management -- 3.3.6 Water Stewardship -- 3.3.7 Social Fairness -- 3.3.8 Certification Program Summary -- Notes and References -- China's Implementation of Alternatives Assessment in the Building Industry: GIGA -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 China Context -- 4.2.1 Health -- 4.2.2 Barriers to Health -- 4.3 Resurgence of Health -- 4.3.1 Trust as a Catalyst -- 4.3.2 Wealth as a Catalyst -- 4.3.3 Access to Information as a Catalyst -- 4.4 Social Media and the Rebuilding of Trust -- 4.4.1 Perfect Storm of Change -- 4.5 Minimization Versus Regeneration in China -- 4.5.1 Regenerative Chemistry -- 4.6 GIGA (Green Ideas, Green Actions) -- 4.6.1 GIGA: the User's Perspective -- 4.6.2 GIGA: Green Algorithm -- 4.6.3 GIGA: Unpacking Alternatives Assessment -- 4.7 Impact: Process -- 4.8 Alternatives Assessment at Scale -- 4.9 Conclusion -- References -- A Collaborative Industry and University Alternative Assessment of Plasticizers for Wire and Cable -- 5.1 Background -- 5.2 Project Workplan -- 5.3 Selection of a Chemical/Chemical Class of Concern and Application -- 5.4 Pilot Project Team Formation -- 5.5 Screening Against the Red List. , 5.6 Using the Quick Chemical Assessment Tool (QCAT) to Screen Chemicals -- 5.7 Applying the GreenScreen™ -- 5.8 Conducting the Chemical Hazard Assessment Portion of the GC3 Project -- 5.8.1 Obtaining Data for GreenScreens™ -- 5.8.2 Reviewing Draft GreenScreens™ -- 5.9 Results -- 5.9.1 Results of the GreenScreen™ Assessments of Alternative Plasticizers -- 5.9.2 Technical and Cost Evaluation of Plasticizers -- 5.9.3 Lessons Learned in the Project -- 5.10 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chemical Hazard Assessment and the GreenScreen™ for Safer Chemicals -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.1.1 Origins of the GreenScreen™ for Safer Chemicals -- 6.2 How it Works -- 6.2.1 Assess and Classify Hazards -- 6.2.2 Apply the Benchmarks -- 6.2.3 Make Informed Decisions and Drive Innovation -- 6.3 Continual Improvement -- 6.3.1 Advances to the GreenScreen™ Method -- 6.3.2 Developing Infrastructure for the GreenScreen™ Program -- 6.4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Hewlett-Packard's Use of the GreenScreen™ for Safer Chemicals -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Tools and Methods -- 7.2.1 Restricted Substance List (RSL) Screening -- 7.2.2 Risk Phrase or Hazard Statement Screening -- 7.2.3 Multi-criteria Decision Analyses -- 7.2.4 Life-cycle Analysis (LCA) -- 7.2.5 Risk Assessment -- 7.2.6 Scoring Schemes, Including the GreenScreen for Safer Chemicals -- 7.3 Integrated Alternatives Assessment Protocol -- 7.3.1 Step 1 - Identify Substances of Concern -- 7.3.2 Step 2 - Characterize Function and End Uses of the Substance -- 7.3.3 Step 3 - Identify Potential Alternatives -- 7.3.4 Step 4 - Assess Chemical Hazards -- 7.3.5 Step 5 - Evaluate Technical and Economic Performance -- 7.3.6 Step 6 - Apply Life-cycle Thinking -- 7.3.7 Step 7 - Approve Alternatives -- 7.4 Opportunities for Improvement -- 7.4.1 Methods -- 7.4.2 Infrastructure. , 7.4.3 Criteria for Preferred Material in Ecolabels -- 7.5 Conclusion -- References -- DSM's Sustainability Journey Towards a Proactive Ingredient Policy for Gaining Effectiveness in the Design of Better Products -- 8.1 General Introduction: Sustainability as Business Growth Driver Opportunity and Global Trends -- 8.1.1 Ecological Benefits: Transparent Assessment with Life-cycle Assessment (LCA) -- 8.1.2 Importance of Global Platforms and Partnerships -- 8.1.3 The Challenges Ahead for a Life Sciences and Materials Sciences Company -- 8.2 A Brighter Future with Composites -- 8.2.1 Leading-edge Performance -- 8.2.2 Lower Eco-footprint -- 8.2.3 Elimination of Substances of hazardous concern -- 8.2.4 BluCure™ Cobalt-free Curing Systems -- 8.2.5 Alternatives to Styrene Reactive Diluents -- 8.2.6 Introduction of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) -- 8.3 Facing the Technical, Performance and Cost Challenges: the Introduction of Halogen-free Flame Retardants -- 8.3.1 Overcoming Technical Challenges -- 8.3.2 Moving Forward -- 8.4 Conclusion -- References -- US Environmental Protection Agency's Design for the Environment (DfE) Alternatives Assessment Program -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Selecting an Approach for Chemical Substitution -- 9.3 PentaBDE Case Study -- 9.3.1 How DfE Conducted CAA for PentaBDE -- 9.3.2 Limitations of Original Methodology and Criteria -- 9.4 New CAA Methodology and Criteria: Steps to Conducting a CAA -- 9.4.1 Step 1: Determine Feasibility -- 9.4.2 Step 2: Collect Information on Chemical Alternatives -- 9.4.3 Step 3: Convene Stakeholders -- 9.4.4 Step 4: Identify Alternatives -- 9.4.5 Step 5: Conduct the Hazard Assessment -- 9.4.6 Step 6: Apply Economic and Life-cycle Context -- 9.4.7 Step 7: Apply the Results in Decision-making for Safer Chemical Substitutes -- 9.5 Application of New CAA Criteria. , 9.5.1 BPA Alternatives in Thermal Paper Partnership -- 9.5.2 Flame Retardant Alternatives to DecaBDE Partnership -- 9.6 Safer Product Labeling Program Case Study -- 9.6.1 Functional Use Concept Advances Greener Chemistry -- 9.6.2 Ingredient-class Criteria Define 'Safer' Chemicals -- 9.6.3 Partnership Process Fosters Teamwork in Safer Formulation -- 9.6.4 Development of Safer Alternatives -- 9.7 What's Next -- 9.7.1 The Community of Practice is Growing -- 9.7.2 Promoting Harmony in CAAs -- References -- NGO Initiatives in the EU - Identifying Substances of Very High Concern (SVHCs) and Driving Safer Chemical Substitutes in Response to REACH -- 10.1 ChemSec Background -- 10.2 Overview of NGO Initiatives - Putting REACH into Practice and Working with Companies -- 10.2.1 The SIN List -- 10.2.2 Substitution Support Portal - SUBSPORT -- 10.2.3 Transparency -- 10.2.4 Business Initiatives -- 10.2.5 NGO-Business Cooperation - Electronics -- 10.2.6 Engaging Financial Investors -- 10.3 The SIN List in Focus -- 10.3.1 REACH and Substances of Very High Concern -- 10.3.2 General Principles Used for the Compilation of the SIN List -- 10.3.3 How the SIN List Has Been Used and Received -- 10.3.4 Detailed Methodology -- 10.3.5 The First Assessment Process (SIN List 1.0) -- 10.3.6 The Second Assessment Process (SIN List 2.0) -- 10.4 Finding Safer Alternatives Through SUBSPORT -- 10.4.1 Background -- 10.4.2 The Web Portal -- 10.4.3 The Substitution Case Story Database -- 10.5 Conclusion -- References -- Alternatives Assessment in Regulatory Policy: History and Future Directions -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Rationale for Informed Substitution -- 11.3 Evolution of Alternatives Assessment Elements in Government Chemicals Reduction Policies -- 11.3.1 Chemical Restriction and Phase-out Policy Development -- 11.3.2 Alternatives Assessment Policy Development. , 11.3.3 Convergence of Chemical Restriction and Alternatives Assessment Policies.

Note: Cover -- Contents -- Preface -- Editors -- List of Contributors -- Emissions of Primary Particulate Matter -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Source Categories -- 2.1 Residential Combustion -- 2.2 Road Transport -- 2.3 Energy and Manufacturing Industries -- 2.4 Maritime Traffic -- 2.5 Agricultural Activities -- 2.6 Natural Sources -- 3 Particle Size Distribution -- 4 Speciation -- 4.1 PM Speciation Source Profiles -- 5 European PM Emission Inventories -- 6 Long-term Trends in Europe -- 7 Regulations and Mitigation Measures -- 7.1 Eco-design Directive -- 7.2 Diesel Vehicle Emission Standards and Abatement Technologies -- 7.3 Urban Access Regulations -- 7.4 MARPOL Convention -- References -- Where Did This Particle Come From? Sources of Particle Number and Mass for Human Exposure Estimates -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Background -- 3 Particle Mass Concentrations -- 4 Particle Number Concentrations -- 4.1 New-particle Formation -- 4.2 Primary Particle Number Emissions -- 4.3 Primary Emissions vs. New-particle Formation -- 4.4 Issues of Scale -- 5 Implications for Human Exposure -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Source Apportionment: Principles and Methods -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Diurnal, Spatial, and Chemical Patterns Indicate PM Origins -- 3 Solutions to the CMB Equations -- 4 CMB Model Assumptions and Effects of Deviations -- 5 More Information from Existing Samples -- 6 How to Judge a Source Apportionment Study -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Case Studies of Source Apportionment from North America -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Historic Development -- 3 Applications -- 3.1 Chemical Mass Balance -- 3.2 Unmix -- 3.3 Positive Matrix Factorization -- 4 Advanced Model Applications -- 4.1 Constrained Models -- 4.2 Multiple Sample Type Data -- 4.3 Time Synchronization Model -- 4.4 Spatially Distributed Data -- 4.5 Mixed Way Data -- 4.6 Size-Composition-Time Data. , 5 Summary -- References -- Case Studies of Source Apportionment and Suggested Measures at Southern European Cities -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods -- 2.1 PM Sampling and Measurements -- 2.2 Sample Treatment and Analysis -- 2.3 Source Apportionment -- 3 Results -- 3.1 PM Levels and Seasonality -- 3.2 PM Chemical Characterization -- 3.3 PM Mass Closure -- 3.4 PM Source Apportionment -- 4 Comparison Among Case Study Cities -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- PM10 Source Apportionment in Five North Western European Cities-Outcome of the Joaquin Project -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Site Description and Chemical Characterisation of PM10 -- 2.1 Sites -- 2.2 PM10 Sampling and Gravimetric Analysis -- 2.3 Chemical Analysis -- 3 Source Apportionment Using Positive Matrix Factorization -- 3.1 Data Preparation and Uncertainty Matrix -- 3.2 Positive Matrix Factorization -- 4 Results and Discussion -- 4.1 PM10 Mass Concentrations -- 4.2 Identification and Temporal Variation of the Calculated Factors -- 4.3 Spatial Variation of the Source Profiles -- 4.4 Wind-directional and Trajectory Analysis of the Source Profiles -- 4.5 Source Profiles on Days Exceeding the Daily Limit Value -- 4.6 Estimated Uncertainty of the PMF Analysis -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- PM2.5 Source Apportionment in China -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Time Trends -- 2.1 Visibility Trends -- 2.2 Emission Trends -- 2.3 Meteorology Trends -- 3 Sources of PM2.5 in China -- 3.1 Methods for Source Apportionment -- 3.2 Source Apportionment Results in China -- 3.3 PM2.5 Source Apportionment in Beijing, China -- 4 Future Research -- 4.1 Health Effects -- 4.2 Online Source Apportionment -- 4.3 Integration of Different Source Apportionment Methods -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Case Studies of Source Apportionment from the Indian Sub-continent -- 1 Introduction. , 2 Source Signatures from Indian Sub-continent -- 3 Case Studies from the Indian Sub-continent -- 3.1 India -- 3.2 Pakistan -- 3.3 Bangladesh -- 3.4 Nepal -- 3.5 Sri Lanka -- 3.6 Bhutan -- 3.7 The Maldives -- 4 Concluding Remarks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Health Effects of Airborne Particles in Relation to Composition, Size and Source -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Current Evidence on Differential Toxicity -- 2.1 Black Carbon and Organic Carbon -- 2.2 Metals -- 2.3 Inorganic Secondary Aerosols -- 2.4 Size -- 2.5 Source -- 3 Overall Conclusions on Differential Toxicity -- 4 Global Variation in the Composition and Toxicity of Particulate Matter -- 4.1 North America -- 4.2 Europe -- 4.3 Western Pacific and Southeast Asia -- 5 Discussion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Subject Index.