Note: Harmful Algal Blooms: A Compendium Desk Reference -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- Chapter 1: Causes of Harmful Algal Blooms -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 ``Getting There´´: The Classic Perspective on Introduced Species and Links to Cultural Eutrophication -- 1.2.1 Introduced Species -- 1.2.2 Anthropogenically Introduced Nutrients -- 1.3 ``Being There´´: Blooms and Why They Succeed -- 1.3.1 Nutrient-Related HAB -- 1.3.2 Resource Ratios, Nutrient Stoichiometry, and Optimal Nutrient Ratios -- 1.3.3 Diversity in Use of Forms of Nitrogen -- 1.3.4 Toxicity -- 1.3.5 Mixotrophy: Use of ``Packaged´´ and Dissolved Particulate Nutrients -- 1.3.6 Other Adaptations -- 1.4 ``Staying There´´: Links to Physical Structure and Climate -- 1.4.1 Physical Structure: Large-Scale and Small-Scale Natural Hydrological Features -- 1.4.2 Physical Dynamics: Anthropogenic Hydrological Changes -- 1.4.3 Reinforcing Feedbacks -- 1.4.3.1 Trophic Disruptions -- 1.4.3.2 Biogeochemical Alterations -- 1.4.4 Climate Change -- 1.5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 2: Detection and Surveillance of Harmful Algal Bloom Species and Toxins -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Organism Detection -- 2.2.1 Visual/Optical -- 2.2.1.1 Light Microscopy (LM)/Utermöhl's -- 2.2.1.2 Light Microscopy/Flow Cytometry -- 2.2.1.3 In Vivo Fluorometry -- 2.2.1.4 Spectral Absorbance/Spectroradiometry -- 2.2.2 Molecular -- 2.2.2.1 Whole Cell Format -- 2.2.2.1.1 Antibodies -- 2.2.2.1.2 FISH -- 2.2.2.1.3 Flow Cytometry with FISH, CARD FISH, and Solid-Phase Cytometry -- 2.2.2.1.4 CARD FISH on a Slide or in Suspension for Liquid Flow Cytometry -- 2.2.2.1.5 CARD FISH on a Filter or in Suspension for Solid-Phase Cytometry -- 2.2.2.2 Cell-Free Format -- 2.2.2.2.1 Sandwich Hybridization Assay (SHA). , 2.2.2.2.2 Microarrays (Slide-Based, Microelectrode-Based, Luminex, etc.) -- 2.2.2.2.3 Biosensors -- 2.2.2.2.4 qPCR -- 2.3 Toxin Detection -- 2.3.1 In Vivo Assays -- 2.3.1.1 Rat Bioassay -- 2.3.1.2 Mouse Bioassay -- 2.3.1.2.1 AOAC Mouse Bioassay for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins -- 2.3.1.2.2 APHA Mouse Bioassay for Neurotoxin Shellfish Poisons -- 2.3.1.2.3 Mouse Bioassay for Lipophilic Shellfish Toxins -- 2.3.1.2.4 Perspectives -- 2.3.2 In Vitro Assays -- 2.3.2.1 Functional Assays -- 2.3.2.1.1 Receptor Binding Assays -- 2.3.2.1.2 Enzyme Inhibition Assays -- 2.3.2.1.3 Cell-Based (Cytotoxicity) Assays (CBAs) -- 2.3.2.2 Structural Assays -- 2.3.2.2.1 Immunoassays -- 2.3.2.2.2 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) -- 2.3.2.2.3 Aptamers -- 2.3.2.3 Biosensors -- 2.3.3 Analytical Techniques -- 2.3.3.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Optical Detection (UV or FLD) -- 2.3.3.1.1 Domoic Acid -- 2.3.3.1.2 Paralytic Shellfish Toxins -- 2.3.3.1.3 Other Toxin Classes -- 2.3.3.2 Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) -- 2.3.3.2.1 Lipophilic Toxins -- 2.3.3.2.2 Paralytic Shellfish Toxins -- 2.3.3.2.3 Other Toxin Classes -- 2.3.3.3 Other Analytical Methods: Capillary Electrophoresis (CE), Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight (MALDI-TOF), and Laser Ablation Electrospray Ionization (LAESI) -- 2.3.3.4 Perspectives -- 2.4 Autonomous, In Situ Technologies -- 2.4.1 Environmental Sample Processor (McLane Research Laboratories) -- 2.4.2 Imaging Flow Cytobot (McLane Research Laboratories) -- 2.4.3 Optical Phytoplankton Discriminator (aka BreveBuster -- Mote Marine Laboratory) -- 2.4.4 CytoBuoy (CytoBuoy b.v.) -- 2.4.5 SPATT Passive Samplers -- 2.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects -- Disclaimer -- References and Further Reading. , Chapter 3: Modeling Marine Harmful Algal Blooms: Current Status and Future Prospects -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Building Models to Describe Ecological Events -- 3.3 Limitations to What Models Can Do, and Why -- 3.3.1 Building Models -- 3.3.2 Model Complexity -- 3.3.3 The Need for Data -- 3.3.4 Validating Models -- 3.4 Modeling T-HAB and ED-HAB Events -- 3.5 How Good Are Current HAB Models? -- 3.6 Future Modeling of T-HAB and ED-HAB: Managing Expectations -- 3.7 Improving Our Capabilities -- 3.7.1 Changes in the Biological-Modeling Interface -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 4: Harmful Algal Blooms and Shellfish -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Major Shellfish Poisonings -- 4.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) -- 4.2.2 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) -- 4.2.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) -- 4.2.4 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) -- 4.2.5 Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) -- 4.3 Other Toxins: Pectenotoxins (PTX) and Yessotoxins (YTX) -- 4.4 Emerging Shellfish Poisonings -- 4.5 Toxin Uptake, Accumulation, and Depuration -- 4.6 Shellfish Contamination in North America -- 4.6.1 Bivalves -- 4.6.1.1 Paralytic Shellfish Contamination -- 4.6.1.2 Diarrheic Shellfish Contamination -- 4.6.1.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Contamination -- 4.6.1.4 Amnesic Shellfish Contamination -- 4.6.2 Gastropods -- 4.6.3 Crustaceans -- 4.7 Impacts on Shellfish -- 4.8 Conclusions and Perspectives -- References and Further Reading -- Chapter 5: Vulnerabilities of Marine Mammals to Harmful Algal Blooms -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Overview of Algal Toxins -- 5.2.1 Brevetoxins -- 5.2.2 Ciguatoxins -- 5.2.3 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins -- 5.2.4 Domoic Acid -- 5.2.5 Paralytic Shellfish Toxins -- 5.2.6 Other Algal and Cyanobacterial Toxins -- 5.3 Impacts of Algal Toxins Specific to Marine Mammals. , 5.3.1 The Effects of Toxin Exposure Depend on Animal Physiology and Behavior -- 5.3.2 Emerging Issues: Non-acute and Multiple Toxin Exposure -- 5.3.3 Prospects for Managing Impacts of HAB -- 5.4 Considerations for the Evaluation of HAB Toxins in Marine Mammals -- 5.4.1 Sampling Marine Mammals for HAB Toxin Analysis -- 5.4.2 Priority Needs for Investigating HAB Toxin Involvement in Marine Mammal Morbidity and Mortality -- Abbreviations -- References and Further Reading -- Chapter 6: Interactions between Seabirds and Harmful Algal Blooms -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Historical Interactions between HAB and Seabirds -- 6.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) -- 6.2.2 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) -- 6.2.3 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning -- 6.2.4 Akashiwo sanguinea -- 6.2.5 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) -- 6.2.6 CyanoHAB -- 6.3 Improved Monitoring and Establishment of Causality -- 6.3.1 Coordinating Monitoring and Pathology to Confirm Relationships between HAB and Seabird Mortality -- 6.3.2 Seabirds as Biological Indicators -- 6.4 Implications for Conservation -- References -- Chapter 7: Food Web and Ecosystem Impacts of Harmful Algae -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Approaches, Pitfalls, Progress, and Goals -- 7.3 High-Biomass Algal Blooms -- 7.4 Emerging Recognition of the Roles of Allelochemicals -- 7.4.1 Microalgae -- 7.4.2 Thalloid Macroalgae -- 7.4.3 Filamentous Mat-Forming Macroalgae -- 7.5 Toxigenic Algae in Aquatic Food Webs -- 7.5.1 Toxic Microcystis aeruginosa Blooms across North America -- 7.5.2 Toxic Prymnesium parvum Blooms and Fish Communities in Two Texas Rivers -- 7.5.3 Toxic Pseudo-nitzschia Blooms in Coastal Upwelling Areas -- 7.5.4 Toxic Alexandrium Blooms in the Northeast -- 7.5.5 Toxic Karenia brevis Blooms along the Florida Coast -- 7.6 Ecosystem-Disruptive Algal Blooms -- 7.7 Future Directions. , Appendix A: Scientific Names for Organisms Listed by Common Name in This Chapter, Also Indicating Species Affected by Karenia brevis (Kb) -- References and Further Reading -- Chapter 8: Assessing the Economic Consequences of Harmful Algal Blooms: A Summary of Existing Literature, Research Methods, Data, and Information Gaps -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Overview -- 8.3 Research Methodologies -- 8.4 Sources and Types of Data -- 8.5 Spatial and Temporal Scopes -- 8.6 Nature of the Hazard -- 8.7 Current Research Gaps -- 8.8 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References and Further Reading -- Chapter 9: Public Health and Epidemiology -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 What Is Public Health and Epidemiology? -- 9.3 HAB and Human Illness -- 9.3.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) -- 9.3.1.1 Exposure -- 9.3.1.2 Clinical Symptoms -- 9.3.1.3 Treatment -- 9.3.2 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) -- 9.3.2.1 Exposure -- 9.3.2.2 Clinical Syndrome -- 9.3.2.3 Treatment -- 9.3.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) -- 9.3.3.1 Exposure -- 9.3.3.2 Clinical Illness -- 9.3.3.3 Treatment -- 9.3.4 Brevetoxin Inhalation Syndrome (BIS) -- 9.3.4.1 Exposure -- 9.3.4.2 Clinical Illness -- 9.3.4.3 Treatment -- 9.3.5 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) -- 9.3.5.1 Exposure -- 9.3.5.2 Clinical Syndrome -- 9.3.5.3 Treatment -- 9.3.6 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) -- 9.3.6.1 Exposure -- 9.3.6.2 Clinical Illness -- 9.3.6.3 Treatment -- 9.3.7 Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) -- 9.3.7.1 Exposure -- 9.3.7.2 Clinical Syndrome -- 9.3.7.3 Treatment -- 9.3.8 Toxic Cyanobacteria -- 9.3.8.1 Exposure -- 9.3.8.2 Clinical Syndromes -- 9.3.8.3 Treatment -- 9.4 The HAB Manager's Role in Preventing HAB-Related Illnesses -- 9.4.1 HAB Management Exemplars -- 9.4.2 The Native American Perspective from Washington State, USA: Domoic Acid and Paralytic Shellfish Toxins -- 9.4.2.1 Background. , 9.4.2.2 Tribal Capacity and Inclusion.