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  • Biology  (11)
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  • 1
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Extraordinary fossils reveal the nature of Cambrian life: a commentary on Whittington (1975) ‘The enigmatic animal Opabinia regalis , Middle Cambrian, Burgess Shale, British Columbia’
    The Royal Society ; 2015
    In:  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140313-
    Details
    In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, The Royal Society, Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140313-
    Abstract: Harry Whittington's 1975 monograph on Opabinia was the first to highlight how some of the Burgess Shale animals differ markedly from those that populate today's oceans. Categorized by Stephen J. Gould as a ‘weird wonder’ ( Wonderful life , 1989) Opabinia , together with other unusual Burgess Shale fossils, stimulated ongoing debates about the early evolution of the major animal groups and the nature of the Cambrian explosion. The subsequent discovery of a number of other exceptionally preserved fossil faunas of Cambrian and early Ordovician age has significantly augmented the information available on this critical interval in the history of life. Although Opabinia initially defied assignment to any group of modern animals, it is now interpreted as lying below anomalocaridids on the stem leading to the living arthropods. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society .
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0962-8436 , 1471-2970
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0313
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: The Royal Society
    Publication Date: 2015
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1462620-2
    SSG: 12
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  • 2
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Climate change, species–area curves and the extinction crisis
    The Royal Society ; 2006
    In:  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences Vol. 361, No. 1465 ( 2006-01-29), p. 163-171
    Details
    In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, The Royal Society, Vol. 361, No. 1465 ( 2006-01-29), p. 163-171
    Abstract: An article published in the journal Nature in January 2004—in which an international team of biologists predicted that climate change would, by 2050, doom 15–37% of the earth's species to extinction—attracted unprecedented, worldwide media attention. The predictions conflict with the conventional wisdom that habitat change and modification are the most important causes of current and future extinctions. The new extinction projections come from applying a well-known ecological pattern, the species–area relationship (SAR), to data on the current distributions and climatic requirements of 1103 species. Here, I examine the scientific basis to the claims made in the Nature article. I first highlight the potential and pitfalls of using the SAR to predict extinctions in general. I then consider the additional complications that arise when applying SAR methods specifically to climate change. I assess the extent to which these issues call into question predictions of extinctions from climate change relative to other human impacts, and highlight a danger that conservation resources will be directed away from attempts to slow and mitigate the continuing effects of habitat destruction and degradation, particularly in the tropics. I suggest that the most useful contributions of ecologists over the coming decades will be in partitioning likely extinctions among interacting causes and identifying the practical means to slow the rate of species loss.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0962-8436 , 1471-2970
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2005.1712
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: The Royal Society
    Publication Date: 2006
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1462620-2
    SSG: 12
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  • 3
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    What's statistical about learning? Insights from modelling statistical learning as a set of memory processes
    The Royal Society ; 2017
    In:  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences Vol. 372, No. 1711 ( 2017-01-05), p. 20160056-
    Details
    In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, The Royal Society, Vol. 372, No. 1711 ( 2017-01-05), p. 20160056-
    Abstract: Statistical learning has been studied in a variety of different tasks, including word segmentation, object identification, category learning, artificial grammar learning and serial reaction time tasks (e.g. Saffran et al. 1996 Science 274 , 1926–1928; Orban et al. 2008 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 , 2745–2750; Thiessen & Yee 2010 Child Development 81 , 1287–1303; Saffran 2002 Journal of Memory and Language 47 , 172–196; Misyak & Christiansen 2012 Language Learning 62 , 302–331). The difference among these tasks raises questions about whether they all depend on the same kinds of underlying processes and computations, or whether they are tapping into different underlying mechanisms. Prior theoretical approaches to statistical learning have often tried to explain or model learning in a single task. However, in many cases these approaches appear inadequate to explain performance in multiple tasks. For example, explaining word segmentation via the computation of sequential statistics (such as transitional probability) provides little insight into the nature of sensitivity to regularities among simultaneously presented features. In this article, we will present a formal computational approach that we believe is a good candidate to provide a unifying framework to explore and explain learning in a wide variety of statistical learning tasks. This framework suggests that statistical learning arises from a set of processes that are inherent in memory systems, including activation, interference, integration of information and forgetting (e.g. Perruchet & Vinter 1998 Journal of Memory and Language 39 , 246–263; Thiessen et al. 2013 Psychological Bulletin 139 , 792–814). From this perspective, statistical learning does not involve explicit computation of statistics, but rather the extraction of elements of the input into memory traces, and subsequent integration across those memory traces that emphasize consistent information (Thiessen and Pavlik 2013 Cognitive Science 37 , 310–343). This article is part of the themed issue ‘New frontiers for statistical learning in the cognitive sciences'.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0962-8436 , 1471-2970
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0056
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: The Royal Society
    Publication Date: 2017
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1462620-2
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  • 4
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Medawar's legacy to cellular immunology and clinical transplantation: a commentary on Billingham, Brent and Medawar (1956) ‘Quantitative studies on tissue transplantation immunity. III. Actively acquired tolerance’
    The Royal Society ; 2015
    In:  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140382-
    Details
    In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, The Royal Society, Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140382-
    Abstract: ‘Quantitative studies on tissue transplantation immunity. III. Actively acquired tolerance’, published in Philosophical Transactions B in 1956 by Peter Medawar and his colleagues, PhD graduate Leslie Brent and postdoctoral fellow Rupert Billingham, is a full description of the concept of acquired transplantation tolerance. Their 1953 Nature paper (Billingham RE et al . 1953 Nature 172 , 603–606. ( doi:10.1038/172603a0 )) had provided initial evidence with experimental results from a small number of neonatal mice, with mention of similar findings in chicks. The Philosophical Transactions B 1956 paper is clothed with an astonishing amount of further experimental detail. It is written in Peter Medawar's landmark style: witty, perceptive and full of images that can be recalled even when details of the supporting information have faded. Those images are provided not just by a series of 20 colour plates showing skin graft recipient mice, rats, rabbits, chickens and duck, bearing fur or plumage of donor origin, but by his choice of metaphor, simile and analogy to express the questions being addressed and the interpretation of their results, along with those of relevant published data and his prescient ideas of what the results might portend. This work influenced both immunology researchers and clinicians and helped to lay the foundations for successful transplantation programmes. It led to the award of a Nobel prize in 1960 to Medawar, and subsequently to several scientists who advanced these areas. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society .
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0962-8436 , 1471-2970
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0382
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: The Royal Society
    Publication Date: 2015
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1462620-2
    SSG: 12
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  • 5
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    VII. On the theory of definite integrals
    The Royal Society ; 1855
    In:  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Vol. 145 ( 1855-12-31), p. 157-178
    Details
    In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, The Royal Society, Vol. 145 ( 1855-12-31), p. 157-178
    Abstract: I PROPOSE in the following paper to investigate some new methods for summing various kinds of series, including almost all of the more important which are met with in analysis, by means of definite integrals, and to apply the same to the evaluation of a large number of definite integrals. In a paper which appeared in the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal for May 1854, I applied certain of these series to the integration of linear differential equations by means of definite integrals. Now Professor Boole has shown, in an admirable memoir which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1844, that the methods which he has invented for the integration of linear differential equations in finite terms, lead to the summation of numerous series of an exactly similar nature, whence it follows that the combination of his methods of summation with mine, will lead to the evaluation of a large number of definite integrals, as will be shown in this paper. It is hence evident that the discovery of other modes of summing these series by means of definite integrals must in all cases lead to the evaluation of new groups of definite integrals, as will also be shown in the following pages. I then point out that these investigations are equivalent to finding all the more important definite integrals whose values can be obtained in finite terms by the solution of linear differential equations with variable coefficients. Again, there are certain algebraical equations which can be solved at once by Lagrange’s series, and by common algebraical processes; the summation of the former by means of definite integrals affords us a new class of results, which I next consider. A continental mathematician, M. Smaasen , has given, in a recent volume of Crelle’s Journal, certain methods of combining series together which give us the means of reducing various multiple integrals to single ones. The series hitherto considered are what have been denominated factorial series” ; but, lastly, I proceed to show that analogous processes extend to series of a very complicated nature and of an entirely different form, and for that purpose sum by means of definite integrals certain series whose values are obtained in finite terms in the ' Exercices des Mathématiques ’ by means of the Residual Calculus. The total result will be the evaluation of an enormous number of definite integrals on an entirely new type, and the application of definite integrals to the summation of many intricate series.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0261-0523 , 2053-9223
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1098/rstl.1855.0007
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: The Royal Society
    Publication Date: 1855
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2056857-5
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  • 6
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    The unseen world: reflections on Leeuwenhoek (1677) ‘Concerning little animals’
    The Royal Society ; 2015
    In:  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140344-
    Details
    In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, The Royal Society, Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140344-
    Abstract: Leeuwenhoek's 1677 paper, the famous ‘letter on the protozoa’, gives the first detailed description of protists and bacteria living in a range of environments. The colloquial, diaristic style conceals the workings of a startlingly original experimental mind. Later scientists could not match the resolution and clarity of Leeuwenhoek's microscopes, so his discoveries were doubted or even dismissed over the following centuries, limiting their direct influence on the history of biology; but work in the twentieth century confirmed Leeuwenhoek's discovery of bacterial cells, with a resolution of less than 1 µm. Leeuwenhoek delighted most in the forms, interactions and behaviour of his little ‘animalcules', which inhabited a previously unimagined microcosmos. In these reflections on the scientific reach of Leeuwenhoek's ideas and observations, I equate his questions with the preoccupations of our genomic era: what is the nature of Leeuwenhoek's animalcules, where do they come from, how do they relate to each other? Even with the powerful tools of modern biology, the answers are far from resolved—these questions still challenge our understanding of microbial evolution. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society .
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0962-8436 , 1471-2970
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0344
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: The Royal Society
    Publication Date: 2015
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1462620-2
    SSG: 12
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  • 7
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    The early evolution of land plants, from fossils to genomics: a commentary on Lang (1937) ‘On the plant-remains from the Downtonian of England and Wales'
    The Royal Society ; 2015
    In:  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140343-
    Details
    In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, The Royal Society, Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140343-
    Abstract: During the 1920s, the botanist W. H. Lang set out to collect and investigate some very unpromising fossils of uncertain affinity, which predated the known geological record of life on land. His discoveries led to a landmark publication in 1937, ‘On the plant-remains from the Downtonian of England and Wales’, in which he revealed a diversity of small fossil organisms of great simplicity that shed light on the nature of the earliest known land plants. These and subsequent discoveries have taken on new relevance as botanists seek to understand the plant genome and the early evolution of fundamental organ systems. Also, our developing knowledge of the composition of early land-based ecosystems and the interactions among their various components is contributing to our understanding of how life on land affects key Earth Systems (e.g. carbon cycle). The emerging paradigm is one of early life on land dominated by microbes, small bryophyte-like organisms and lichens. Collectively called cryptogamic covers, these are comparable with those that dominate certain ecosystems today. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society .
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0962-8436 , 1471-2970
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0343
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: The Royal Society
    Publication Date: 2015
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1462620-2
    SSG: 12
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  • 8
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Deciphering death: a commentary on Gompertz (1825) ‘On the nature of the function expressive of the law of human mortality, and on a new mode of determining the value of life contingencies’
    The Royal Society ; 2015
    In:  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140379-
    Details
    In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, The Royal Society, Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140379-
    Abstract: In 1825, the actuary Benjamin Gompertz read a paper, ‘On the nature of the function expressive of the law of human mortality, and on a new mode of determining the value of life contingencies’, to the Royal Society in which he showed that over much of the adult human lifespan, age-specific mortality rates increased in an exponential manner. Gompertz's work played an important role in shaping the emerging statistical science that underpins the pricing of life insurance and annuities. Latterly, as the subject of ageing itself became the focus of scientific study, the Gompertz model provided a powerful stimulus to examine the patterns of death across the life course not only in humans but also in a wide range of other organisms. The idea that the Gompertz model might constitute a fundamental ‘law of mortality’ has given way to the recognition that other patterns exist, not only across the species range but also in advanced old age. Nevertheless, Gompertz's way of representing the function expressive of the pattern of much of adult mortality retains considerable relevance for studying the factors that influence the intrinsic biology of ageing. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society .
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0962-8436 , 1471-2970
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0379
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: The Royal Society
    Publication Date: 2015
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1462620-2
    SSG: 12
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  • 9
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Every inch a finch: a commentary on Grant (1993) ‘Hybridization of Darwin's finches on Isla Daphne Major, Galapagos’
    The Royal Society ; 2015
    In:  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140287-
    Details
    In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, The Royal Society, Vol. 370, No. 1666 ( 2015-04-19), p. 20140287-
    Abstract: One of the most familiar features of the natural world is that most animals and plants fall into distinct categories known as species. The attempt to understand the nature of species and the origin of new species was the enterprise that drove the early development of evolutionary biology and has continued to be a major focus of research. Individuals belonging to the same species usually share a distinctive appearance and way of life, and they can mate together successfully and produce viable offspring. New species may evolve, therefore, either through ecological divergence or through sexual isolation. The balance between these processes will depend on the extent of hybridization, especially in the early stages of divergence. Detecting and measuring hybridization in natural populations, however, requires intensive, long-term field programmes that are seldom undertaken, leaving a gap in our understanding of species formation. The finch community of a small, isolated island in the Galapagos provided an opportunity to discover how frequently hybridization takes place between closely related species in a pristine location, and Peter Grant's paper, published in Philosophical Transactions B in 1993, reports the observations that he and his collaborators made during the first 20 years of what is now one of the classical studies of evolution in action. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society .
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0962-8436 , 1471-2970
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0287
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: The Royal Society
    Publication Date: 2015
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1462620-2
    SSG: 12
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  • 10
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    VIII. On a general method in analysis
    The Royal Society ; 1844
    In:  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Vol. 134 ( 1844-12-31), p. 225-282
    Details
    In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, The Royal Society, Vol. 134 ( 1844-12-31), p. 225-282
    Abstract: Much attention has of late been paid to a method in analysis known as the calculus of operations, or as the method of the separation of symbols. Mr. Gregory, in his Examples of the Differential and Integral Calculus, and in various papers published in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal, vols. i. and ii., has both clearly stated the principles on which the method is founded, and shown its utility by many ingenious and valuable applications. The names of M. Servois (Annales des Mathé-matiques, vol. v. p. 93), Mr. R. Murphy (Philosophical Transactions for 1837), Professor De Morgan, & c., should also be noticed in connection with the history of this branch of analysis. As I shall assume for granted the principles of the method, and shall have occasion to refer to various theorems established by their aid, it may be proper to make some general remarks on the subject by way of introduction. Mr. Gregory lays down the fundamental principle of the method in these words: “There are a number of theorems in ordinary algebra, which, though apparently proved to be true only for symbols representing numbers, admit of a much more ex­tended application. Such theorems depend only on the laws of combination to which the symbols are subject, and are therefore true for all symbols, whatever their nature may be, which are subject to the same laws of combination.” The laws of combination which have hitherto been recognised are the following, π and ρ being symbols of operation, u and v subjects.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0261-0523 , 2053-9223
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1098/rstl.1844.0008
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: The Royal Society
    Publication Date: 1844
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2056857-5
    SSG: 12
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