Description: A new satellite-based passive microwave sea-ice concentration product developed for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Climate Data Record (CDR) programme is evaluated via comparison with other passive microwave-derived estimates. The new product leverages two well-established concentration algorithms, known as the NASA Team and Bootstrap, both developed at and produced by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). The sea-ice estimates compare well with similar GSFC products while also fulfilling all NOAA CDR initial operation capability (IOC) requirements, including (1) self-describing file format, (2) ISO 19115-2 compliant collection-level metadata, (3) Climate and Forecast (CF) compliant file-level metadata, (4) grid-cell level metadata (data quality fields), (5) fully automated and reproducible processing and (6) open online access to full documentation with version control, including source code and an algorithm theoretical basic document. The primary limitations of the GSFC products are lack of metadata and use of untracked manual corrections to the output fields. Smaller differences occur from minor variations in processing methods by the National Snow and Ice Data Center (for the CDR fields) and NASA (for the GSFC fields). The CDR concentrations do have some differences from the constituent GSFC concentrations, but trends and variability are not substantially different. Keywords: Sea ice; Arctic and Antarctic oceans; climate data record; evaluation; passive microwave remote sensing. (Published: 22 December 2014) Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33 , 21004, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.21004

Description: The Artotrogidae, one of the most primitive of siphonostomatoid families, consists currently of 117 species in 21 genera. Most of these species (65%) are poorly or incompletely described since they have been rarely recorded in recent decades and, when encountered, have been found in very low numbers. During the 19th Italian Antarctic Expedition, with the RV Italica , to the Ross Sea in austral summer 2004, some artotrogid copepods were collected. This paper redescribes two species of artotrogid copepods, which are known only from the Southern Ocean, Neobradypontius neglectus and Cryptopontius latus , and describes for the first time a male of the genus Neobradypontius . Furthermore, a new species is described and added to Sestropontius , increasing the number of known species of this genus to three. The main discrepancies between the original descriptions and the specimens of the two species collected from the Ross Sea redescribed here were on the armature of the antennary exopod and leg 5. The new species, Sestropontius italicae , shares with its most similar congener, S. mckinnoni , the armature of the third endopodal segment of leg 1 and leg 2 and that of the third exopodal segment of leg 4. However, the segmentation of the antennae and the armature on the antennary exopod are different. Keywords: Antarctica; Artotrogidae; redescription; Neobradypontius ; Sestropontius ; Cryptopontius To access larger versions of Figs. 2–12 please see the supplementary file in the column to the right (under Article Tools) (Published: 8 December 2014) Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33 , 24135, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.24135

Description: Understanding the distribution and foraging ecology of major consumers within pelagic systems, specifically in relation to physical parameters, can be important for the management of bentho-pelagic systems undergoing rapid change associated with global climate change and other anthropogenic disturbances such as fishing (i.e., the Antarctic Peninsula and Scotia Sea). We tracked 11 adult male southern elephant seals ( Mirounga leonina ), during their five-month post-moult foraging migrations from King George Island (Isla 25 de Mayo), northern Antarctic Peninsula, using tags capable of recording and transmitting behavioural data and in situ temperature and salinity data. Seals foraged mostly within the Weddell–Scotia Confluence, while a few foraged along the western Antarctic Peninsula shelf of the Bellingshausen Sea. Mixed model outputs suggest that the at-sea behaviour of seals was associated with a number of environmental parameters, especially seafloor depth, sea-ice concentrations and the temperature structure of the water column. Seals increased dive bottom times and travelled at slower speeds in shallower areas and areas with increased sea-ice concentrations. Changes in dive depth and durations, as well as relative amount of time spent during the bottom phases of dives, were observed in relation to differences in overall temperature gradient, likely as a response to vertical changes in prey distribution associated with temperature stratification in the water column. Our results illustrate the likely complex influences of bathymetry, hydrography and sea ice on the behaviour of male southern elephant seals in a changing environment and highlight the need for region-specific approaches to studying environmental influences on behaviour. Keywords: Southern elephant seals; foraging ecology; satellite-relay data loggers; King George Island; Isla 25 de Mayo; at-sea behaviour To access the supplementary material for this article, please see the supplementary files in the column to the right (under Article Tools). (Published: 26 November 2014) Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33 , 23808, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.23808

Description: A recently recovered and compiled set of inorganic carbon data collected in the Canadian Arctic since the 1970s has revealed substantial change, as well as variability, in the carbonate system of the Beaufort Sea and Canada Basin. Whereas the role of this area as a net atmospheric carbon sink has been confirmed, high p CO 2 values in the upper halocline underscore the potential for CO 2 outgassing as sea ice retreats and upwelling increases. In addition, increasing total inorganic carbon and decreasing alkalinity are increasing p CO 2 and decreasing CaCO 3 saturation states, such that undersaturation with respect to aragonite now occurs regularly in both deep waters and the upper halocline. Keywords: Carbonate system; Arctic Ocean; time series; Beaufort Sea; ocean acidification (Published: 26 November 2014) Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33 , 20577, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.20577

Description: The spinal column of early Antarctic penguins is poorly known, mainly due to the scarcity of articulated vertebrae in the fossil record. One of the most interesting segments of this part of the skeleton is the transitional series located at the root of the neck. Here, two such cervicodorsal series, comprising reinterpreted known material and a new specimen from the Eocene of Seymour Island (Antarctic Peninsula), were investigated and contrasted with those of modern penguins and some fossil bones. The new specimen is smaller than the counterpart elements in recent king penguins, whereas the second series belonged to a large-bodied penguin from the genus Palaeeudyptes . It had been assigned by earlier researchers to P. gunnari (a species of “giant” penguins) and a Bayesian analysis—a Bayes factor approach based on size of an associated tarsometatarsus—strongly supported such an assignment. Morphological and functional studies revealed that mobility within the aforementioned segment probably did not differ substantially between extant and studied fossil penguins. There were, however, intriguing morphological differences between the smaller fossil specimen and the comparative material related to the condition of the lateral excavation in the first cervicodorsal vertebra and the extremely small size of the intervertebral foramen located just prior to the first “true” thoracic vertebra. The former feature could have resulted from discrepancy in severity of external pneumatization. Both fossils provided valuable insights into the morphology and functioning of the axial skeleton in early penguins. Keywords: Antarctic Peninsula; La Meseta Formation; Palaeogene; early Sphenisciformes; cervicodorsal vertebrae. (Published: 20 November 2014) Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33 , 23861, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.23861

Description: Atmospheric aerosol samples were collected over the Southern Ocean (SO) and coastal East Antarctica (CEA) during the austral summer of 2010/11. Samples were analysed for trace elements, including Na, Mg, K, Al, Fe, Mn, Ni, Cd and Se, by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The mean atmospheric concentrations over the SO were 1100 ng m −3 for Na, 190 ng m −3 for Mg, 150 ng m −3 for Al, 14 ng m −3 for Fe, 0.46 ng m −3 for Mn and 0.25 ng m −3 for Se. Over CEA, the mean concentrations were 990 ng m −3 for Na, 180 ng m −3 for Mg, 190 ng m −3 for Al, 26 ng m −3 for Fe, 0.70 ng m −3 for Mn and 0.29 ng m −3 for Se. Particle size distributions, enrichment factors (EFs) and correlation analysis indicate that Na, Mg and K mainly came from the marine source, while Al, Fe and Mn were mainly from the crustal source, which also contributed to Mg and K over CEA. High EFs were associated with Ni, Cd and Se, suggesting likely contributions from mixed sources from the Antarctic continent, long-range transport, marine biogenic emissions and anthropogenic emissions. Sea-salt elements (Na, Mg, K) were mainly accumulated in the coarse mode, and crustal elements (Al, Fe, Mn) presented a bimodal size distribution pattern. Bioactive elements (Fe, Ni, Cd) were enriched in the fine mode, especially with samples collected over the SO, possibly affecting biogeochemical cycles in this oceanic region. Keywords: Southern Ocean; coastal East Antarctica; trace elements; size distribution; sources (Published: 17 November 2014) Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33 , 23973, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.23973

Description: Egg masses of the Patagonian squid Doryteuthis (Amerigo) gahi attached to giant kelp ( Macrocystis pyrifera ) in the Magellanic channels of the sub-Antarctic ecoregion in southern South America is documented for the first time. Of seven egg masses observed between 2008 and 2011, one was taken to the laboratory to be analysed and photographed. Comprising long transparent capsules containing eggs, the masses were strongly attached to the stipes of M. pyrifera . This macroalgae is a potentially important economic resource due to its multiple industrial uses; this study shows that it also serves an important ecological role as a spawning substrate for D. gahi . Keywords: Doryteuthis ; egg masses; giant kelp; Patagonian squid; sub-Antarctic ecoregion (Published: 5 November 2014) Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33 , 21636, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.21636

Description: Protists in the central Arctic Ocean are adapted to the harsh environmental conditions of its various habitats. During the Polarstern cruise ARK-XXVI/3 in 2011, at one sea-ice station, large aggregates accumulated at the bottom of the melt ponds. In this study, the protist assemblages of the bottom layer of the sea-ice and melt-pond aggregate were investigated using flow cytometry and 454-pyrosequencing. The objective is to provide a first molecular overview of protist biodiversity in these habitats and to consider the overlaps and/or differences in the community compositions. Results of flow cytometry pointed to a cell size distribution that was dominated by 3–10 µm nanoflagellates. The phylogenetic classification of all sequences was conducted at a high taxonomic level, while a selection of abundant (≥1% of total reads) sequences was further classified at a lower level. At a high taxonomic level, both habitats showed very similar community structures, dominated by chrysophytes and chlorophytes. At a lower taxonomic level, dissimilarities in the diversity of both groups were encountered in the abundant biosphere. While sea-ice chlorophytes and chrysophytes were dominated by Chlamydomonas/Chloromonas spp. and Ochromonas spp., the melt-pond aggregate was dominated by Carteria sp., Ochromonas spp. and Dinobryon faciluiferum. We suppose that the similarities in richness and community structure are a consequence of melt-pond freshwater seeping through porous sea ice in late summer. Differences in the abundant biosphere nevertheless indicate that environmental conditions in both habitats vary enough to select for different dominant species. Keywords: 18S rDNA; Arctic Ocean; biodiversity; next-generation sequencing; flow cytometry To access the supplementary material for this article, please see supplementary files in the column to the right (under Article Tools) (Published: 5 November 2014) Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33 , 23466, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.23466

Description: Between the fjords Dicksonfjorden and Billefjorden in central Spitsbergen, Svalbard’s youngest deposits (Early Givetian to Famennian in age) of the Old Red Sandstone—the Mimerdalen Subgroup—are exposed. They form a narrow outcrop area parallel to the Billefjorden Fault Zone and overlie unconformably the multicoloured sandstones of the Lower Devonian Wood Bay Formation. Stratigraphic rank and subdivision of the succession were changed repeatedly since its first mention in 1910. Based on student work in 1996, as well as regional mapping by the authors in 1993 and 2003, the present work formalizes the stratigraphic framework of the succession. This framework has already been applied in recent geological maps. At the same time it is a continuation of the lithostratigraphic standardization carried out by the Committee on the Stratigraphy of Svalbard (1999), where only post-Devonian rocks were considered. Except for some small-pebble conglomerate layers in the Wood Bay Formation, the upper part of the Mimerdalen Subgroup contains the first coarse-grained deposits in Svalbard’s Old Red since the lowermost Devonian Red Bay Group. Faulting between its formations as well as conglomerate pebbles derived from the Lower Devonian Wood Bay Formation indicate the onset of the Svalbardian Event after the tectonic stability during the deposition of the Wood Bay Formation. The Mimerdalen Subgroup is probably the detrital fill of a small foreland basin derived from erosion during the uplift of the Ny-Friesland Block to the east of the Billefjorden Fault Zone. It was later affected by compressional tectonic movements during the Svalbardian Event. Keywords : Svalbard; geology; stratigraphy; Mimerdalen Subgroup; Devonian; Old Red. To access the supplementary material for this article, please see supplementary files under Article Tools online. (Published: 30 October 2014) Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33 , 19998, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.19998

Description: Our long-term study gives a rare insight into meltwater hydrochemistry following the transition of Austre Brøggerbreen from polythermal to cold-based glaciation and its continued retreat. We find that the processes responsible for ion acquisition did not change throughout the period of records but became more productive. Two regimes before and after July/August 2000 were identified from changes in solute concentrations and pH. They resulted from increased chemical weathering occurring in ice-marginal and proglacial environments that have become progressively exposed by glacier retreat. Carbonate carbonation nearly doubled between 2000 and 2010, whilst increases in the weathering of silicate minerals were also marked. In addition, the end of ablation season chemistry was characterized by reactions in long residence time flow paths like those in subglacial environments, in spite of their absence in the watershed. Furthermore, the retreat of the glacier caused the sudden re-routing of meltwaters through its immediate forefield during 2009, which more than doubled crustal ion yields in this particular year and influenced chemical weathering in 2010 regardless of a low water flux. Such a “flush” of crustally derived ions can be meaningful for downstream terrestrial and marine ecosystems. We therefore find that, during glacier retreat, the recently exposed forefield is the most chemically active part of the watershed, making high rates of weathering possible, even when ice losses have caused a switch to cold-based conditions with no delayed subglacial drainage flowpaths. In addition, the drainage system reorganization events result in significant p CO 2 depletion in an otherwise high p CO 2 system. Keywords: High Arctic; Bayelva; meltwater geochemistry; chemical weathering in glacierized catchment; glacier retreat; climate change. (Published: 23 October 2014) Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33 , 22779, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.22779