Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Atmospheric Effects of the Emerging Mainland Chinese Transportation System at and Beyond the Regional Scale

  • Published:
Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Local surface travel needs in the People‘s Republic of China (mainlandChina) have traditionally been met largely by nonpolluting bicycles. A majorautomobile manufacturing/importing effort has begun in the country over thelast decade, and planning documents indicate that the Chinese may strive toacquire more than 100 million vehicles early in the next century. By analogywith large automotive fleets already existing in the western world, bothregional and global scale pollution effects are to be expected from theincrease. The present work adopts the latest projections of Chinese automobilemanufacture and performs some quantitative assessments of the extent ofpollution generation.Focus for the investigation is placed upon the oxidant ozone. Emissions of theprecursor species nitrogen oxides and volatile organics are constructed basedon data for the current automotive sector in the eastern portion of the UnitedStates. Ozone production is first estimated from measured values forcontinental/oceanic scale yields relative to precursor oxidation. Theestimates are then corroborated through idealized two dimensional modeling ofthe photochemistry taking place in springtime air flow off the Asian land massand toward the Pacific Ocean. The projected fleet sizes could increase coastaland remote oceanic ozone concentrations by tens of parts per billion (ppb)in the lower troposphere. Influences on the tropospheric aerosol system andon the major greenhouse gas carbon dioxide are treated peripherally. Nitrogenoxides created during the vehicular internal combustion process willcontribute to nitrate pollution levels measured in the open Pacific. Thepotential for soot and fugitive dust increases should be considered as theautomotive infrastructure develops. Since the emerging Chinese automotivetransportation system will represent a substantial addition to the globalfleet and all the carbon in gasoline is eventually oxidized completely, asignificant rise in global carbon dioxide inputs will ensue as well.Some policy issues are treated preliminary. The assumption is made thatalterations to regional oxidant/aerosol systems and to terrestrial climate areconceivable. The likelihood that the Chinese can achieve the latest vehiclefleet goals is discussed, from the points of view of new production, positivepollution feedbacks from a growing automobile industry, and known petroleumreserves. Vehicular fuel and maintenance options lying before the Chinese areoutlines and compared. To provide some perspective on the magnitude of theenvironmental changes associated with an Asian automotive buildup, recentestimates of the effects of future air traffic over the Pacific Rim aredescribed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akimoto, H. and Narita, H., 1994: Distribution of SO2, N Ox and CO2 emissions from fuel combustion and industrial activities in Asia with 1 x 1 resolution, Atmos. Environ. 88, 100–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akimoto, H., Nakane, H., and Matsumoto, Y., 1993: The chemistry of oxidant generation: Tropospheric ozone increase in Japan, in J. Calvert (ed.), Chemistry of the Atmosphere: the Impact on Global Change, Blackwell Science Publication.

  • Aldape, F., Flores, M. J., Diaz, R. V., and Crumpton, D., 1993: Temporal variations in elemental concentrations of atmospheric aerosols in Mexico City, Nuclear Instrum. Meth. Phys. Res. B 75, 304–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, B. E., Gregory, G. L., Barrick, J.D.W., Collins, J. E., Sachse, G.W., Badwell, D., Shipham, M. C., Bradshaw, J. D., and Sandholm, S. T., 1993: The impact of U.S. continental outflow on ozone and aerosol distribution over the Western Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res. 98, 24,477–24,489.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrade, F., Orini, C., and Maenhaut, W., 1994: Relation between aerosol sources and meteorological parameters for inhalable atmospheric particles in Sao Paulo City, Brazil, Atmos. Environ. 28, 2307–2315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bachmeier, A. S., Newell, R. E., Shipham, M. C., Zhu, Y., Blake, D. R., and Browell, E. V., 1996: PEM-West A: Meteorological overview, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 57–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnathon, J., Crock, S., and Einhorn, B., 1996: Rethinking China, Business Week, 4 March, 57–58.

  • Baugham, S. L., Metwally, M., Seals, R. K., and Wuebbles, D. J., 1993: Emissions scenarios development: completed scenarios database, in R. S. Stolarski and H. L. Wesoky (ed.), The Atmospheric Effects of Stratospheric Aircraft: A Third Program Report, NASA Ref. Pub., Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaton, S. P., Bishop, G. A., and Stedman, D. H., 1992: Emission characteristics of Mexico City vehicles, J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 42, 89–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, J. P., Reeves, C. E., Deleeuw, F. A. A. M., Penkett, S. A., 1992: The effect of aircraft emissions on tropospheric ozone in the Northern Hemisphere, Atmos. Environ. 26, 17–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benkovitz, C.M., Berkowitz, C.M., and Easter, R. C., 1994: Sulfate over the North Atlantic and adjacent continental regions: Evaluation for October and November 1986 using a three-dimensional model driven by observation derived meteorology, J. Geophys. Res. 99 , 20,725–20,756.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, C.M., Busness, K. M., Chapman, E.G., Throp, J. M., and Saylor, R.D., 1995: Observations of depleted ozone within the boundary layer of the western North Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 11,483–11,496.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhatti, N. and Streets, D. G., 1991: Preliminary grid-by-grid SO2 emissions inventory for Asia, Third Annual Workshop on Acid Rain in Asia, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, G. A., Starkey, J. R., Ihlenfeldt, A., Williams, W. J., and Stedman, D. H., 1989: IR long-path photometry, a remote sensing tool for automobile emissions, Anal. Chem. 61, 15–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake, D. R. and Rowland, F. S., 1986: Global concentrations and source strength of ethane, Nature {vn321}, 231–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake, D. R. and Rowland, F. S., 1995: Urban leakage of liquefied petroleum gas and its impact on Mexico City air quality, Science 269, 953–956.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake, D. R., Chen, T. Y., Smith, T.W., and Wang, C. J. L., 1996a: Three-dimensional distribution of non methane hydrocarbons and halocarbons over the northwestern Pacific during the 1991 Pacific Exploratory Mission, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 100–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake, D. R., Blake, N. J., Chen, T. Y., Collins, J. E., Sachse, G.W., Merrill, J. T., and Rowland, F. S., 1996b: The effects of season on the distribution of selected hydrocarbons and halocarbons over the Western Pacific Basin: A comparison of PEM-West A and PEM-West B, J. Geophys. Res., in press.

  • Boucher, O. and Anderson, T. L., 1995: General circulation model assessment of the sensitivity of direct climate forcing by anthropogenic sulfate aerosols to aerosol size and chemistry, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 26,117–26,134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brasseur, G. and Solomon, S., 1984: Aeronomy of the Middle Atmosphere, D. Reidel, Dordrecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brasseur, G., Hitchman, M. H., Walters, S., Dymek, M., Falise, E., and Pirre, M., 1990: An interactive chemical dynamical radiative two-dimensional model of the middle atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res. {vn95}, 5639–5655.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brasseur, G. P., Muller, J. F., and Granier, C., 1996: Atmospheric impact of NOx emissions by subsonic aircraft: A three-dimensional model study, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 1423–1428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bravo, H., Camacho, R., Guadalupe, C., and Ocona, R., 1991: Analysis of the change in atmospheric urban formaldehyde and photochemistry activity as a result of using methyl butyl ether as an additive in gasolines of the metropolitan area of Mexico City, Atmos. Environ. 24, 223–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, L. R., 1995: State of the World, W. W. Norton, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, G. D. and Hindmarsh, A. C., 1987: Stiff ODE solvers: A review of current and coming attractions, J. Comput. Phys. 70, 1–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, W., 1986: Effects of methanol fuel substitution on multiday air pollution episodes, Report to California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, California.

  • Chameides, W. L., Kasibhatla, P. S., Yienger, J., and Levy, H., 1994: Growth of continental-scale metro-agro-plexes, regional ozone pollution, and world food production, Science 264, 74–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, J. S., Hindmarsh, A. C., and Madsen, N. K., 1973: Simulation of chemical kinetics transport in the stratosphere, in R. S. Willoughby (ed.), Stiff Differential Systems, Plenum Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, J. S., Brost, R. A., Isaksen, I. S. A., Madronich, S., Middleton, P., Stockwell, R., and Walcek, C. J., 1987: A three dimensional Eulerian acid deposition model: Physical concepts and formulation, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 14,681–14,700.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatfield, R. B. and Delany, A. C., 1990: Convection links biomass burning to increased tropical ozone: however, models will tend to overpredict O3, J. Geophys. Res. 95, 18,473–18,488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chin, M., Jacob, D. J., Munger, J. W., Parrish, D. D., and Doddridge, B. G., 1994: Relationship of ozone and carbon monoxide over North America, J. Geophys. Res. 99, 14,565–14,573.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chock, D. P., Winkler, R. L., Chang, T. L., Rudy, S. J., and Shen, Z. K., 1994: Urban ozone air quality impact of emissions from vehicles using reformulated gasolines and M85, Atmos. Environ. 34, 224–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chung, Y. S., 1986: Air pollution detection by satellites: The transport and deposition of air pollutants over oceans, Atmos. Environ. 20, 617–630.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cline, W. R., 1992: The Economics of Global Warming, Institute for International Economics, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crutzen, P. J., 1973: A discussion of the chemistry of some minor constituents in the stratosphere and troposphere, Pure Appl. Geophys. 106–108, 1385–1399.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crutzen, P. J., 1982: The global distribution of hydroxyl, in E. D. Goldberg (ed.), Atmospheric Chemistry, pp. 313–328.

  • Crutzen, P. J., 1988: Tropospheric ozone: an overview, in I. S. A. Isaksen (ed.), Tropospheric Ozone, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 3–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crutzen, P. J. and Gidel, L. T., 1983: A two-dimensional photochemical model of the atmosphere 2. The tropospheric budgets of the anthropogenic chlorocarbons CO, CH4, CH3Cl and the effect of various NOx sources on tropospheric ozone, J. Geophys. Res. 88, 6641–6661.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crutzen, P. J. and Zimmerman, P. H., 1991: The changing photochemistry of the troposphere, Tellus {vn43B}, 136–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cutter Information, 1992: Changing by Degrees: Steps to Reduce Greenhouse Gases, Cutter Information Corporation, Arlington, Massachusetts.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeAndrade, J. B. and Miguel, A. H., 1985: Determination of carbonyl compounds in exhaust gases form alcohol-fueled vehicles equipped with three-way catalytic converters, Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 21, 229–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeCicco, J. and Ross, M., 1994: Improving automotive efficiency, Sci. Amer.December, 52–55.

  • Derwent, R. G., 1982: Two-dimensional model studies of the impact of aircraft exhaust emissions on tropospheric ozone, Atmos. Environ. 16, 1997–2007.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dignon, J., 1991: Trace gas emission data base for atmospheric chemistry studies, Report UCRL-ID-108511, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dignon, J., 1992: NOx and SOx emissions from fossil fuels: A global distribution, Atmos. Environ. {vn26A}, 1157–1163.

    Google Scholar 

  • DOE (Department of Energy), 1990: Annual energy outlook: 1990, DOE/EIA-0383(90), U.S.Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duce, R. A., Liss, P. S., Merrill, J. T., and Atlas, B. L., 1991: The atmospheric input of trace species to the world ocean, Global Biochemical Cycles 5, 193–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, S., Turco, R. P., and Jacobson, M. Z., 1993a: Test on combined projection and forward differencing integration for stiff photochemical family systems at long time step, Comput. Chem. {vn17}, 92–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, S., Kao, C. Y. J., Turco, R. P., and Zhao, X. P., 1993b: Kinetics programs for simulation of tropospheric photochemistry on the global scale, Report LA-12539-MS, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, S., Turco, R. P., Zhao, X. P., Kao, C. Y. J., and Shen, M., 1995a: Photochemical numerics for global scale modeling: Fidelity and GCM testing, J. Appl. Meteorol. 34, 694–719.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, S., Kao, C. Y. J., Shen, M., Turco, R. P., and Jacobson, M. Z., 1995b: A streamlined family photochemistry package reproduces major nonlinearities in the tropospheric ozone system, Comput. Chem., in press.

  • Engardio, P. and Roberts, D., 1996: Global tremors from an unruly giant, Business Week, 4 March, 59–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Environmental Protection Agency of China, 1991: Methods for Determination of Air and Waste Gas Pollutants, Chinese Environmental Science Publishing House, Beijing.

    Google Scholar 

  • EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 1989: NEDS Source Classification Codes and Emission Factor Listing, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, D. J., Walton, J. J., Ghan, S. J., and Penner, J. L., 1991: Three-dimensional modeling of the global atmospheric sulfur cycle: A first step, Atmos. Environ. 25A, 2513–2516.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, W. S., Griffin, J. J., and Goldberg, E. D., 1970: Atmospheric dusts from the North Pacific–a short note on long-range aeolian transport, J. Geophys. Res. 75, 1137–1139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferman, M. A., Wolff, G. T., and Kelly, N. A., 1981: An assessment of the gaseous pollutants and meteorological conditions associated with Denver’s brown cloud, J. Environ. Sci. Health A16, 315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Bremanunts, A. A. and Ashmore, M.R., 1995: Exposure of commuters to carbon monoxide in Mexico City-1. Measurements of in-vehicle concentrations, Atmos. Environ. 29, 466–477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishman, J. and Crutzen, P. J., 1978, The origin of ozone in the troposphere, Nature 274, 855–858.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fujita, S., Ichikawa, Y., Kawaratani, R. K., and Tonooka, Y., 1991: Preliminary inventory of sulfur dioxide emission in East Asia, Atmos. Environ. 18, 161–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galloway, J. N. and 36 others, 1992: Sulfur and nitrogen levels in the North Atlantic Ocean’s atmosphere: A synthesis of field and modeling results, Global Biogeochem. Cycles 6, 77–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gidel, L. T. and Shapiro, M., 1980: General circulation model estimates of the net vertical flux of ozone in the lower stratosphere and the implications for the tropospheric ozone budget, J. Geophys. Res. 85, 4048–4090.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldemberg, J., 1995: Energy needs in developing countries and sustainability, Science 269, 1058–1059.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graedel, T. E., 1994: Global emissions inventories to aid atmospheric modelers, EOS Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union 75, 585–591.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grosse, H. J., 1995: Abatement of air pollution in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR), Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 1407–1486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grosse, H. J., 1995: Abatement of air pollution in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR), Pute Appl. Chem. 67, 1407–1486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guenther, A., Hewit, N. C., Erickson, D., and Fall, R., 1995: A global model of natural volatile organic compound emissions, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 8873–8897.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haagen-Smit, A. J., Darley, E. F., Zaitlin, M., Hull, H., and Noble, W., 1951: Investigation on injury to plants from air pollution in the Los Angeles area, Plant Physiol. 27, 18–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haagen-Smit, A. J., Brunelle, M. F., and Haagen-Smit, J. W., 1959: Ozone cracking in the Los Angeles area, Rubber Chem. Technol. 32, 1134–1140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hameed, S. and Dignon, J., 1992: Global emissions of nitrogen and sulfur oxides in fossil fuel combustion 1970–1986, J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 42, 159–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harriss, R. C., Browell, E.W., Sebacher, D. I., Gregory, G. I., Hinton, R. R., Beck, S.M., McDougal, D. S., and Shipley, S. T., 1984: Atmospheric transport of pollutants from North America to the North Atlantic ocean, Nature 308, 722–724.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauglustaine, D. A., Grainier, C., Brasseur, G. P., and Megie, G., 1994: The importance of atmospheric chemistry in the calculation of radiative forcing on the climate system, J. Geophys. Res. 99, 1173–1186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hidalgo, H. and Crutzen, P. J., 1977, The tropospheric and stratospheric composition perturbed by NOx emissions of high-altitude aircraft, J. Geophys. Res. 82, 5833–5844.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirose, K. and Sugimura, Y., 1984: Excess 228Th in the airborne dust: An indicator of continental dust from the East Asian deserts, Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 70, 110–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoell, J. M., Davis, D. D., Liu, S. C., Newell, R., Shipham, M., Akimoto, H., McNeal, R. J., Bendura, R. J., and Drewry, J. W., 1996: Pacific exploratory mission West A (PEM-WEST A): September–October 1991, J. Geophys. Res. 101 1641–1653.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hong, M. S., 1993: The long range transport of air pollutants in the Pacific rim region around South Korea, Report to the Korean Science Foundation, Aeiu University, Korea.

  • Hough, A. M. and Derwent, R. G., 1990: Changes in the global concentration of tropospheric ozone due to human activities, Nature 344, 645–647.

    Google Scholar 

  • Houghton, J. T., Jenkins, G. J., and Ephraums, J. J., 1990: Climatic Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

  • Houghton, J. I., Callender, B. A., and Varney, S. K., 1992: Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

  • Iwasaka, Y., Hiroaki, M., and Nagaya, K., 1983: The transport and spatial scale of Asian dust storm clouds: A case study of the dust storm event of April, 1979, Tellus 35B, 189–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, D. J. and Wofsy, S. C., 1988: Photochemistry of biogenic emissions over the Amazon forest, J. Geophys. Res. 93, 1477–1486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, D. J. and Wofsy, S. C., 1990: Budgets of reactive nitrogen, hydrocarbons, and ozone over the Amazon forest during the wet season, J. Geophys. Res. 95, 16,737–16,754.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, D. J., Sillman, S., Logan, J. A., and Wofsy, S. C., 1989: Least independent variables method for simulating tropospheric ozone, J. Geophys. Res. 94, 8497–8510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, D. J., Logan, J. A., Gardner, G. M., Yevich, R. K., Spivakovsky, C. M., and Wofsy, S. C., 1993a: Factors regulating ozone over the United States and its export to the global atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 98, 14,817–14,826.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, D. J., Logan, J. A., Yevich, R. M., Gardner, G. M., Spivakovsky, C. M., Wofsy, S. C., Munger, J. W., Sillman, S., Prather, M. J., Rodgers, M. O., Westberg, H., and Zimmerman, P. R., 1993b: Simulation of summertime ozone over North America, J. Geophys. Res. 98, 14,797–14,816.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, M. Z., 1994: Developing, coupling and applying GATOR: A gas, aerosol, transport and radiation model to study urban and regional air pollution, Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, M. Z. and Turco, R. P., 1994: SMVGEAR: A sparse matrix, vectorized Gear code for atmospheric models, Atmos. Environ. 28, 273–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • JI, X. L., Jiang, D. H., Fei, S. M., Yuan, H., He, P. J., and Ye, B. M., 1993: Road dust emission inventory for the metropolitan area of Shanghai city, Atmos. Environ. 27, 1735–1741.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C., Henshaw, J., and McInnes, G., 1992: Impact of aircraft and surface emissions of nitrogen oxides on tropospheric ozone and global warming, Nature 355, 69–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, H. S. and Podolske, J., 1978: Interpretations of stratospheric photochemistry, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 16, 491–519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, H. S., Kinnison, D. E., and Wuebbles, D. J., 1989: Nitrogen oxides from high-altitude aircraft: An update of potential effects on ozone, J. Geophys. Res. 94, 16351–16363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanakidou, M. and Crutzen, P. J., 1993: Scale problems in global tropospheric chemistry modeling: Comparison of results obtained with a three dimensional model adopting longitudinally uniform and varying emissions of NOx and NMHC, Chemosphere 26, 787–801.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanakidou, M., Singh, H. B., Valentin, K. M., and Crutzen, P. J., 1991: A two-dimensional study of ethane and propane oxidation in the troposphere, J. Geophys. Res. 96, 15395–15413.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kang, K. H. and Sang, S. E., 1991: Influence of yellow sand on TSP in Seoul, Proc. Second IUAPPA Regional Conf. on Air Pollution, Seoul, Korea, pp. 280–290.

  • Kasting, J. F. and Singh, H. B., 1986: Non-methane hydrocarbons in the troposphere: Impact on the odd hydrogen and odd nitrogen chemistry, J. Geophys. Res. 91, 13,239–13,256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kato, N. and Akimoto, H., 1992: Anthropogenic emissions of SO2 and NOx in Asia: Emissions inventories, Atmos. Environ. 26A, 2997–3017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kato, N., Ogawa, Y., Koike, T., Sakamoto, T., and Sakamoto, S., 1991: Analysis of the structure of energy consumption and the dynamics of emissions of atmospheric species related to the global change in Asia, Report 21 to the National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, Tokyo.

  • Keeling, C. D., 1973: Industrial production of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and limestone, Tellus {vn25}, 174–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiehl, J. T. and Briegleb, B. P., 1993: The relative roles of sulfate aerosols and greenhouse gases in climate forcing, Science 260, 311–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kittleson, D. B. and Dolan, D. F., 1980: Diesel exhaust aerosols, in K. Willeke (ed.), Generation of Aerosols and Facilities for Exposure Experiments, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klemm, O. and Schaller, E., 1994: Aircraft measurement of pollutant fluxes across the borders of eastern Germany, Atmos. Environ. 28, 2847–2860.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koike, M., Kondo, Y., Kawakami, S., Singh, H. B., Ziereis, H., and Merrill, J. T., 1996: Ratios of reactive nitrogen species over the Pacific during PEM West A, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 1829–1851.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kondo, Y., Matthews, W., Iwata, A., Morita, Y., and Takagi, M., 1987: Aircraft measurements of nitrogen along the eastern rim of the Asian continent, J. Atmos. Chem. 5, 37–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kondo, Y., Ziereis, H., Koike, M., Kawakami, S., Gregory, G. L., Sachse, G. w., Singh, H. B., Davis, D. D., and Merrill, J. T., 1996: Reactive nitrogen over the Pacific Ocean during PEM-West A, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 1809–1828.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotamarthi, V. K. and Carmichael, G. R., 1990: The long range transport of pollutants in the Pacific Rim region, Atmos. Environ. 24A, 1521–1534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotamarthi, V. K., Sunwoo, Y., Carmichael, G. R., Ueda, H., and Kurita, H., 1991: Long range transport of trace gases and aerosols in the northeast Pacific rim, Air Pollut. Model. Appl. 15, 507–514.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kretzschmar, J. G., 1993: Air pollution levels and trends in Latin American megacities, in P. Zannetti, C. A. Brebbia, J. E. Garcia Gardea, and G. Ayala Millian (eds), Air Pollution, Computational Mechanics Publications, Boston, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kretzschmar, J. G., 1994: Particulate matter levels and trends in Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires, and Rio de Janeiro, Atmos. Environ. 28, 3181–3191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lacis, A. A., Wuebbles, D. J., and Logan, J. A., 1990: Radiative forcing of climate by changes in the vertical distribution of ozone, J. Geophys. Res. 95, 9971–9981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, B., Zhang, X. F., Eskridge, R. E., Benner, R., Westerb, H., Mitchell, J., Ziacheng, Z., and Jun, L., 1990: Elevated plume transport and dispersion: 20–150 km downwind of Beijing, P.R.C., Atmos. Environ. 23A, 859–870.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langman, B. and Graf, H. F., 1995: The chemistry of the polluted atmosphere over Europe: Simulations and sensitivity studies with a regional chemistry-transport model, Report No. 180, Max-Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langner, J. and Rodhe, H., 1991: A global three-dimensional model of the tropospheric sulfur cycle, J. Atmos. Chem. 13, 225–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lashof, D. A. and Tirpak, D. A., 1990: Policy Options for Stabilizing Global Climate, Hemisphere Publishing, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lave, L. C., Hendrickson, C. T., and McMichael, F. C., 1995: Environmental implications of electric cars, Science 268, 983–987.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawson, D. R., Groblicki, P. J., Stedman, D. H., Bishop, G. A., and Guenther, P. L., 1990: Emissions from in-use motor vehicles in Los Angeles: A pilot study of remote sensing and the inspection and maintenance program, J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 40, 1096–1107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Y. Y., 1995: Local air pollution problems in Korea, Pure and Appl. Chem. 67, pp. 1407–1486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy, H., Mahlman, J. D., Moxim, W. J., and Liu, S. C., 1985: Tropospheric ozone: The role of transport, J. Geophys. Res. 90, 3753–3772.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, X., Trainer, M., and Liu, S. C., 1988: On the nonlinearity of the tropospheric ozone production, J. Geophys. Res. 93, 15,879–15,888.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S. C., Kley, D., and Levy, H., 1980: On the origin of tropospheric ozone, J. Geophys. Res. 85, 75-46-7552.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S. C., McAfee, J. R., and Cicerone, R. J., 1984: Radon and tropospheric vertical transport, J. Geophys. Res. 89, 7291–7297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S. C., Trainer, M., Fehsenfeld, F. C., Parrish, D. D., Williams, E. J., Fahey, D.W., Hubler, G., and Murphy, P. C., 1987: Ozone production in the rural troposphere and the implications for regional and global ozone distributions, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 4191–4207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S. C., Trainer, M., and Carroll, M., 1992: A study of the photochemistry and ozone budget during the Maua Loa Observatory Photochemistry Experiment, J. Geophys. Res. 97, 10,463–10,470.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lodge, J. P., 1992: Air quality in metropolitan Manila: Inferences from a questionable data set, Atmos. Environ. 26A, 2673–2677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logan, J. A., 1983: Nitrogen in the troposphere: global and regional budgets, J. Geophys. Res. 88, 10785–10807.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logan, J. A., 1985: Tropospheric ozone: seasonal behavior, trends, and anthropogenic influence, J. Geophys. Res. 90, 10,463–10,482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logan, J. A., Prather, M. J., Wofsy, S. C., and McElroy, M. B., 1981: Tropospheric chemistry: A global perspective, J. Geophys. Res. 86, 7210–7254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lu, Y., 1991: The prospects and economic costs of the reduction of CO2 emissions in the People’s Republic of China (P.R.C.), in J. C. White (ed.), Global Climate Change; The Economic Costs of Mitigation and Adaptation, Elsevier Science Publishing, New York, pp. 339–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahlman, J. D., Levy, H., and Moxim, W. J., 1980: Three-dimensional tracer structure and behavior as simulated in two ozone precursor experiments, J. Atmos. Sci. 37, 655–667.

    Google Scholar 

  • MARI (The Mexico City Air Quality Research Initiative), 1994: Report LA-1269, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marland, G., 1989: The role of forests in addressing the CO2 greenhouse, in J. C. White (ed.), Global Climate Change Linkages and Rain, Air Quality, and Ozone, Elsevier Science Publishing, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marland, G. and Rotty, R. M., 1984: Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels: A procedure for estimation and results for 1950–1982, Tellus 36B, 232–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marland, G., Rotty, R. M., and Treat, N. L., 1985: CO2 from fossil fuel burning: Global distribution of emissions, Tellus 37B, 243–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayrsohn, H., Kuramoto, M., Crabtree, J. H., Sothern, R. D., and Mano, S. H., 1975: Atmospheric hydrocarbon concentrations, June–September 1974, Report to the State of California Air Resources Board, April.

  • McKeen, S. A., Hsie, E.-Y., and Liu, S. C., 1991a: A study of the dependence of rural ozone on ozone precursors in the eastern United States, J. Geophys. Res. 96, 15,377–15,394.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKeen, S. A., Hsie, E.-Y., Trainer, M., Tallamraju, R., and Liu, S. C., 1991b: A regional model study of the ozone budget in the eastern United States, J. Geophys. Res. 96, 10,085–10,845.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNair, L. A., Russell, A. G., Williams, M. D., Streit, G. E., Cruz, X., Ruiz, M. E., and Guzman, F., 1996: Impact of diffusivity parameterization on pollutant modeling in Mexico City, submitted to Atmos. Environ.

  • Merrill, J. T., Bleck, R., and Avila, L., 1985: Modeling atmospheric transport to the Marshall Islands, J. Geophys. Res. 90, 12,927–12,936.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miranda, J., Cahill, T. A., Morales, J. R., Aldape, F., Flores, J., and Ruiz, R. V., 1994: Determination of Elemental concentrations in atmospheric aerosols in Mexico City using proton induced X-Ray emission, proton elastic scattering, and laser absorption, Atmos. Environ. 28, 2299–2306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moon, K. C., Kim, Y. P., Baik, H. J., and Lee, J. H., 1995: Characteristics of Seoul Smog, Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 1407–1422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Motor Vehicle Manufacturer’s Association (MVMA), 1990: Facts and Figures, Motor Vehicle Manufacturer’s Association, Detroit, Michigan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller, J. F., 1992: Geographical distribution and seasonal variation of surface emissions and deposition velocities of atmospheric trace gases, J. Geophys. Res. 97, 3787–3804.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller, J. F. and Brasseur, G., 1995: Images: A three-dimensional chemical transport model of the global troposphere, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 16,445–16,490.

    Google Scholar 

  • NAPAP (National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program), 1990: NAPAP State of Science and Technology, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • NAS (National Academy of Sciences), 1983a: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons; Evaluation of Sources and Effects, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • NAS (National Academy of Sciences), 1983b: Changing Climate: Report of the Carbon Dioxide Assessment Committee, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nemesure, S., Wagener, R., and Schwartz, S. E., 1995: Direct shortwave forcing of climate by the anthropogenic sulfate aerosol: Sensitivity to particle size, composition, and relative humidity, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 26,105–26,115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Novakov, T. and Penner, J. E., 1993: Large contributions of organic aerosols to cloud condensation-nuclei concentrations, Nature 365, 823–825.

    Google Scholar 

  • NRC (National Research Council), 1991: Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olszyna, K. J., Bailey, E. M., and Meagher, J. F., 1993: Ozone and NOy relationships at a rural site in Tennessee, EOS Trans. AGU 74, 66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oltmans, S. J. and Levy, H., 1992: Seasonal cycle of surface ozone over the western North Atlantic, Nature 358, 392–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parrish, D. D., Holloway, J. S., Trainer, M., Murphy, P. C., Forbes, G. L., and Fehsenfeld, F. C., 1993: Export of North American ozone pollution to the North Atlantic ocean, Science 259, 1436–1439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parungo, F., 1993: Investigation of atmospheric aerosols and gases in an east China station, Report to U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Air Resources Laboratory, Silver Spring MD.

  • Parungo, F., Nagamoto, C., Zhou, M. Y., Hansen, A. D. A., and Harris, J., 1994: Aeolian transport of aerosol black carbon from China to the ocean, Atmos. Environ. 28, 3251–3260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulson, S. E. and Seinfeld, J. H., 1992: Development and evaluation of a photooxidation mechanism for isoprene, J. Geophys. Res. 97, 20,703–20,715.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penkett, S. A., Blake, N. J., Lightman, P., Marsh, A. R. W., and Anwyl, P., 1993: The seasonal variation of nonmethane hydrocarbons in the free troposphere over the North Atlantic ocean: Possible evidence for extensive reaction of hydrocarbons with the nitrate radical, J. Geophys. Res. 98, 2865–2885.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penner, J. E., Atherton, C. S., Dignon, J., Ghan, S. J., and Walton, J. J., 1991: Tropospheric nitrogen: A three-dimensional study of sources, distributions and deposition, J. Geophys. Res. 96, 1587–1590.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penner, J. E., Charlson, R. J., Hales, J.M., Laulainen, N. S., Leifer, R., Novakov, T., Ogren, J., Radke, L. F., Schwartz, S. E., and Travis, L., 1994: Quantifying and minimizing uncertainty of climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols, Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. 75(3), 375–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickering, K. E., Thompson, A. M., Scala, J. R., Tao, W.K., and Simpson, J., 1992a: Ozone production potential following convective redistribution of biomass burning emissions, J. Atmos. Chem. 14, 297–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickering, K. E., Thompson, A. M., Scala, J. R., Tao, W. K., Dickerson, R. R., and Simpson, J., 1992b: Free tropospheric ozone production following entrainment of urban plumes into deep convection, J. Geophys. Res. 97, 17,985–18,000.

    Google Scholar 

  • Placet, M., Battye, R. E., Fehsenfeld, F. C., and Bassett, G.W., 1990: Emissions involved in acid deposition processes, NAPAP State of the Science/Technology Report I. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prospero, J. M. and Savoie, D. L., 1989: Effect of continental sources on nitrate concentrations over the Pacific Ocean, Nature 339, 687–689.

    Google Scholar 

  • Qing, Y. D., 1995: Survey of ambient pollution in Chengde City and the control measures, Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 9945–9948.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quong, C. and Sougkong, Y., 1995: Local air pollution and countermeasures in Guitang, Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 1675–1768.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramanathan, V., 1988: The radiative and climatic consequences of the changing atmospheric composition of trace gases, in F. S. Rowland and I. S. A. Isaksen (eds), The Changing Atmosphere, Wiley, New York, pp. 159–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramanathan, V., Callis, L., Cess, R., Hansen, J., Isaksen, I. S. A., Kuhn, W., Lacis, A., Luther, F., Mahlman, J., Reck, R., and Schlesinger, M., 1987: Climate chemical interactions and effects of changing atmospheric trace gases, Rev. Geophys. 25, 1441–1482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rex, R. W. and Goldberg, E. D., 1958: Quartz contents of pelagic sediments of the Pacific Ocean, Tellus 10, 153–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rex, R.W., Syers, J. K., Jackson, M. L., and Clayton, R. N., 1969: Eolian origin of quartz in soils of Hawaiian Islands and in Pacific sediments, Science 163, 277–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodhe, H., Galloway, J., and Zhao, D., 1992: Acidification in southeast Asia-prospects for the coming decades, Ambio 21, 148–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rood, R. B., 1987: Numerical advection algorithms and their role in atmospheric transport and chemistry models, Rev. Geophys. 25, 71–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, L. and Silk, M. A., 1987: Environmental Law and Policy in the People’s Republic of China, Quorum Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, J., 1988: Two-dimensional distribution of light hydrocarbons: results from the STRATOZ III experiment, J. Geophys. Res. 93, 8367–8377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, A. G., Milford, J. B., and St. Pierre, D., 1990: Ozone control and methanol fuel use, Science {vn247}, 201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, A. G., Winner, D. A., Harley, R. A., McCue, K. F., and Cass, G. R., 1993: Mathematical modeling and control of the dry deposition flux of nitrogen-containing air pollutants, Environ. Sci. Technol. 27, 2772–2782.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sathaye, J., Tyler, S., and Goldman, N., 1994: Transportation, fuel use, and air quality in Asian cities, Energy 19, 573–686.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savoie, D. L. and Prospero, J.M., 1989: Comprison of oceanic and continental sources of non-sea-salt sulphate over the Pacific Ocean, Nature 339, 685–687.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seila, R. L., Lonneman, W., and Meeks, S., 1989: Determination of C2 toC12 ambient air hydrocarbons in 39 U.S. cities, from 1984 through 1986, Report EPA/600/S3-89/058, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

  • Seinfeld, J. H., 1986: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution, Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seinfeld, J. H., 1989: Urban air pollution; state of the science, Science 243, 745–748.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sexton, K. and Westberg, H., 1984: Nonmethane hydrocarbon composition of urban and rural atmospheres, Atmos. Environ. 18, 1125–1132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, G. E., 1980: Transport of Asian desert aerosol to the Hawaiian Islands, J. Appl. Meteorol. 19, 1254–1259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shen, M., Turco, R. P., and Paulson, S. E., 1996: Role of isoprene in tropospheric photochemistry and ozone production, submitted to J. Geophys. Res.

  • Shettle, E. P. and Fenn, R.W., 1979: Models for the aerosols of the lower atmosphere and the effects of humidity variations on their optical properties, Environmental Research Paper No. 676, AFGL TR-79-0214, Hanscom, Massa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sillman, S., Logan, J. A., and Wofsy, S. C., 1990a: A regional scale model for ozone in the United States with subgrid representation of urban and power plant plumes, J. Geophys. Res. 95, 5731–5748.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sillman, S., Logan, J. A., and Wofsy, S. C., 1990b: The sensitivity of ozone to nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in regional ozone episodes, J. Geophys. Res. 95, 1837–1851.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, H. B. and Zimmerman, P., 1992: Atmospheric distribution and sources of nonmethane hydrocarbons, in J. O. Nriagu (ed.), Gaseous Pollutants: Characterization and Cycling, Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, H. B., Ludwig, F. L., and Jonson, W. B., 1978: Tropospheric ozone: Concentrations and variabilities in clear remote atmospheres, Atmos. Environ. 12, 2185–2190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, H. B., Viezee, W., and Salas, L. J., 1988: Measurements of selected C2–C3 hydrocarbons in the troposphere: Latitudinal, vertical and temporal variations, J. Geophys. Res. 93, 15,861–15,878.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, H. B., Gregory, G. L., Anderson, B., Browell, E., Sachse, G. W., DAvis, D. D., Crawford, J., Bradshaw, J. D., Talbot, R., Blake, D. R., Thornton, D., Newell, R., and Merrill, J., 1996a: Low ozone in the marine boundary layer of the tropical Pacific Ocean: Photochemical loss, chlorine atoms and entrainment, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 1907–1917.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, H. B., Herlth, D., Kolyer, R., Salas, R., Bradshaw, J. D., Sandholm, S. T., Davis, D. D., Crawford, J., Kondo, Y., Koike, M., Talbot, R., Gregory, G. L., Sachse, G.W., Browell, E., Blake, D. R., Rowland, F. S., Newell, R., Merrill, J., Heikes, B., Liu, S. C., Crutzen, P. J., and Kanakidou, M., 1996b: Reactive nitrogen and ozone over the western Pacific: distribution, partitioning and sources, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 1793–1808.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinton, J. E., 1992: China energy databook, Report LBL-32822.Rev.3, UC-350, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smil, V., 1988: Energy in China’s Modernization: Advances and Limitations, M. E. Sharpe Inc., New York, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K. R., Apte, M. G., and Yuquing, M., 1994: Air pollution and the energy ladder in Asian cities, Energy 19, 587–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Su, J. C., 1978: Proceedings of the Colloquium on Aquatic Environment in the Pacific Region, International Council of ScientificUnions, Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment, Taipei, Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • Su, W., Song, W., Luo, C., and Ma, C. G., 1991: Chemical composition of atmospheric aerosol in Beijing, Tianjin, and other typical regions in China, J. Aerosol Sci. 22, S601–S604.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunwoo, Y. and Carmichael, G., 1992: Tropospheric ozone in the western Pacific Rim: Analysis of the satellite and surface-based observations along with comprehensive 3-D model simulations, Quadrennial Ozone, 225–227.

  • Sunwoo, Y., Kotamarthi, V. R., and Carmichael, G. R., 1992: The regional distribution of tropospheric ozone in East Asia from satellite-based measurements, J. Atmos. Chem. 14, 285–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunwoo, Y., Carmichael, G. R., and Ueda, H., 1994: Characteristics of background surface ozone in Japan, Atmos. Environ. 28, 25–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szwarc, A. and Branco, G. M., 1985: Automotive use of alcohol in Brazil and air pollution related aspects, SAE technical paper 850309, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, X., Li, J., and Chen, D., 1995: Summertime photochemical pollution in Beijing, Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 1485–1495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tao, X. G., Hong, C. J., Yu, S. H., Chen, B. H., Zhu, H. G., and Yang, M. D., 1992: Priority among air-pollution factors for preventing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Shanghai, Sci. Total Environ. 127, 57–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, A. M. and Cicerone, R. J., 1982: Clouds and wet removal as causes of variability in the trace gas composition of marine troposphere, J. Geophys. Res. 87, 8811–8826.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toon, O. B. and Pollack, J. B., 1976: A global average model of atmospheric aerosols for radiative transfer calculations, J. Appl. Meteorol. 15, 225–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trainer, M., Hsie, E. Y., McKeen, S. A., Tallamraju, R., Parrish, D. D., Fehsenfeld, F. C., and Liu, S. C., 1987: Impact of natural hydrocarbons on hydroxyl and peroxy radicals at a remote site, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 11,879–11,894.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trijonis, J., 1989: Visibility in the southwest–An exploration of the historical data base, Atmos. Environ. 13, 833–843.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twomey, S. A., 1977: Atmospheric Aerosols, Elsevier, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twomey, S. A., Piepgrass, M., and Wolfe, T. L., 1984: An assessment of the impact of pollution on global cloud albedo, Tellus 36B, 364–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, P., 1994: China planning people’s car to put masses behind the wheel, New York Times, 22 September.

  • UDC, 1982: Ambient air quality standard (China), GB 3095-82.

  • Uematsu, M., Duce, R. A., Prospero, J. M., Chen, L., Merrill, J. T., and McDonald, R. L., 1983: Transport of mineral aerosol from Asia over the North Pacific Ocean, J. Geophys. Res. 88, 5343–5352.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations (UN), 1987: Energy Statistics Yearbook, Publishing Division, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations (UN), 1990: Demographic Yearbook, 1988, Publishing Division, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations (UN), 1992: Urban Air Pollution in Megacities of the World, Blackwell, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Villalobos-Paitrini, R., Blanco, S., and Gomez-Arroyo, S., 1995: Mutagenicity assessment of airborne particles in Mexico City, Atmos. Environ. 29, 517–524.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., Hongjie, L., and Dgang, T., 1995: Study on mass concentration of airborne particulate caused by traffic in Beijing, Pure Appl. Sci. 67, 1407–1486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, W. C., Zhang, Q. Y., Easterling, D. R., Karl, T. R., 1993: Beijing cloudiness since 1875, J. Climate 6, 1921–1927.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiguang, X., 1981: The chemical composition of environmental aerosol in Beijing, Chinese Environ. Sci. 4, 51–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (World Health Organization), 1985: Human exposure to carbon monoxide and suspended particulate matter in Beijing, People’s Republic of China, GEMS: PEP/85.11, World Health Organization, Geneva.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. L., 1989: Formaldehyde methanol, and hydrocarbon emissions from methanol fueled cars, Report GMR-6728, General Motors Research Laboratories, Warren, MI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Windom, H. L., 1975: Eolian contributions to marine sediments, J. Sed. Petrol. 45, 5209–529.

    Google Scholar 

  • Windom, H. L., Griffin, J. J., and Goldberg, E. D., 1967: Talc in atmospheric dusts, Environ. Sci. Technol. 1, 923–926.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wofsy, S. C., 1978: Temporal and latitudinal variations of stratospheric trace gases: a critical comparison between theory and experiments, J. Geophys. Res. 83, 364–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Bank and Chinese Ministry of Communications, 1994: China: Highway development and management issues, options, and strategies, Report No. 13555-CHA.

  • World Resources Institute (WRI), 1992: World Resource 1992 and 1993, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., Wang, A., Huang, Y., Ma, C., and Iida, Y., 1985: The Energy Sector, World Bank, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, P., 1989: Manual of Air Quality Assurance for Environmental Monitoring, Chinese Environmental Press, China.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, J. and Zhu, Y., 1991: Analysis of vertical gradient measurements of air pollutants and relations with meteorology, Shanghai Environ. Sci. 10, 21–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, J. and Zhu, Y., 1994: Characteristics of ozone concentrations and their relations with meteorological factors in Shanghai, Atmos. Environ. 28, 3387–3390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, J., Zhou, B. B., Hu, M. H., 1992: Study on the numerical modeling of particulate matter in Shanghai, Atmos. Environ. 26, 2679–2688.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., Dockery, D. W., Christiani, D. C., Li, B., and Huang, H., 1993: Air pollution and daily hospital outpatient visits in Beijing, Amer. Rev. Respiratory Dis. 147, A636–A636.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X. P., Gao, J., Dockery, D. W., and Chen, Y., 1994: Air pollution and mortality in residential areas of Beijing, Arch. Environ. Pollut. 49, 216–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X. P., Dockery, D. W., Christiani, D. C., Li, B. L., and Huang, H. Y., 1995: Association of air pollution with hospital outpatient visits in Beijing, Arch. Environ. Health 50, 214–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuhua, B., Li, J., and Ling, B., 1995: Natural hydrocarbon compounds emitted from vegetation in China, Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 1407–1490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., Xisoyan, T., and Mutian, B., 1987: The source identification of aerosols in Xigu region, Lanzhou city, J. Environ. Sci. 3, 269–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., Stedman, D.H., Bishop, G. A., Guenther, P. L., and Beaton, S. T., 1995: Worldwide on-road vehicle exhaust emissions study by remote sensing, Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 2286–2296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, D. and Sun, B., 1986: Atmospheric pollution from coal combustion in China, J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 36, 371–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, D. and Xiong, J., 1988: Acidification in southwestern China, Acidification in TropicalCountries, pp. 317–346.

  • Zhao, Z. X. and Zhao, Z. P., 1985: Air pollution in Shanghai and approaches to its control, Report No. 85-59-A7, Air Pollution Control Assoc., Detroit, MI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhihao, W., 1990: Bicycles in large cities in China, in M. J. Heraty (ed.), Developing World Transport, Grosvenor Press International, London, pp. 130–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, M. Y., Chen, Z., Huang, R. H., Wang, Q. M., Arimoto, R., Parungo, F., Lenschow, D., Okada, K., and Wu, P. M., 1994: Effects of dust storms on solar-radiation in the Beijing-Tianjin area, Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 2697–2700.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, T., Zhou, J., and Bai, Z., 1995: Source apportionment for air particulate matter in Dagang oil field, Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 1407–1406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, Y. and Xu, J., 1993: analysis on the observation of O3–NOx at varied levels and relations with meteorological conditions in the lower atmosphere, Acta Meteorol. Sinica., 51, 499–504.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Earth and Environmental Sciences Division, Geoanalysis Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 87545, U.S.A

    SCOTT ELLIOTT, C. Y. J. KAO & XUE PENG ZHAO

  2. Atmospheric Sciences Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90024, U.S.A

    MEI SHEN, RONG LU & RICHARD P. TURCO

  3. Chemistry Department, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92715, U.S.A

    DONALD R. BLAKE & F. SHERWOOD ROWLAND

  4. Civil Engineering Department, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GE, 30033, U.S.A

    ARMISTEAD G. RUSSELL

  5. Technology and Safety Assessment Division, Energy and Environmental Analysis Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 87545, U.S.A

    GERALD E. STREIT, EDWARD IAIN McCREARY & MICHAEL J. BROWN

Authors
  1. SCOTT ELLIOTT
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. MEI SHEN
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. DONALD R. BLAKE
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. RONG LU
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. ARMISTEAD G. RUSSELL
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. C. Y. J. KAO
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. GERALD E. STREIT
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. XUE PENG ZHAO
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. EDWARD IAIN McCREARY
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. F. SHERWOOD ROWLAND
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. MICHAEL J. BROWN
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. RICHARD P. TURCO
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

ELLIOTT, S., SHEN, M., BLAKE, D.R. et al. Atmospheric Effects of the Emerging Mainland Chinese Transportation System at and Beyond the Regional Scale. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 27, 31–70 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005726818613

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005726818613

Search

Navigation