http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1153-8530
Retraction
Following publication of this article [1], concerns were raised about the reported methodology and results, availability of data and materials, and about the ethical approval procedures.
Ethics approval
The corresponding author has provided the editors with copies of the ethical approval documentation and the application for permission for animal experiments. Editorial review noted that although the animal use application indicated a plan to study the effect of phage lysate of Brucella in therapy of Brucellosis, the description of procedures listed only subcutaneous injection of Brucellaphage and did not specify injection of phage-lysate of Brucella S19 and RB51, as carried out in [1]. The corresponding author has stated there was an inadvertent omission of phage lysate in the list of substances to be administered. It was further noted that the approved application specified 18 cattle (6 each in two test groups and 6 in a control group), while the article [1] reports the use of 21 cattle in three test groups and one control group.
Data availability
The underlying data for this study are not included with the article; however, in post-publication follow up, the corresponding author provided the individual-level underlying data for 21 animals for all figures and tables in the article and one additional representative RT-PCR gel; the corresponding author stated that no further underlying RT-PCR gel images or microbial culture plate images are available. The corresponding author has stated that the lytic phage used in the study has been deposited at the National Centre for Veterinary Type Cultures at ICAR National Research Centre on Equines, with accession number VTCCBPA183.
Concerns about study design and data
Concerns were raised after publication about the reliability and interpretation of some of the reported results, including that the standard deviations for the antibody titer data in Table 1 are small for biological replicates, that blood may not be a suitable tissue for study of Brucellosis, and that isolation and culture of Brucella is considered to have low sensitivity. In reviewing these issues, PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases obtained input from two members of our Editorial Board who reviewed the underlying individual-level RT-PCR and culture results provided, which reported 100% positivity for untreated animals at all tested time points from day 0 to day 90. One consulted editor advised that culture positivity and RT-PCR positivity varies widely in Brucellosis depending on a number of factors, and that there is insufficient information reported about the potential pre-selection of animals on the basis of test positivity that may contribute to the high levels of positive results in culture and RT-PCR. A second consulted editor advised that the average sensitivity of Brucella isolation in culture is low and isolation of Brucella from all untreated infected animals at all time points is unexpected; additionally, the consulted editor advised that blood is not considered a suitable tissue for culture because Brucella bacteremia in cattle is very short. The corresponding author has indicated that the reported results accurately reflect what was observed and noted that RT-PCR was used to monitor levels of Brucella-specific RNA in the blood plasma as an indication of the presence of live Brucella in the body, not to demonstrate bacteremia.
PLOS has contacted the Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University. Given the cumulative advice and information received in post-publication follow-up, the PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases editors consider that the concerns about the reliability of the results are not resolved. In light of concerns about differences between the reported study in [1] and the approved animal use application, and concerns about the reliability of reported results that were not resolved in post-publication follow-up, the PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases Editors retract this article.
HMS and SR did not agree with the retraction and stand by the article’s findings.
20 Dec 2022: The PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases Editors (2022) Retraction: A novel immunotherapy of Brucellosis in cows monitored non invasively through a specific biomarker. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 16(12): e0011002. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0011002 View retraction
Figures
Abstract
Brucellosis is an important zoonotic disease causing huge economic losses worldwide. Currently no effective immunotherapy for Brucellosis or any biomarker to monitor the efficacy of therapy is available. Treatment is ineffective and animals remain carrier lifelong. S19 and RB51 are live attenuated vaccine strains of Brucella abortus. However, S19 induces only antibody, ineffective for intracellular pathogen. RB51 induces cell mediated immunity (CMI) but it is Rifampicin resistant. Both organisms are secreted in milk and can infect humans and cause abortions in animals. Phage lysed bacteria (lysates) retain maximum immunogenicity as opposed to killing by heat or chemicals. We report here the successful immunotherapy of bovine Brucellosis by phage lysates of RB51 (RL) and S19 (SL). The SL induced strong antibody response and RL stimulated CMI. In vitro restimulation of leukocytes from RL immunized cattle induced interferon gamma production. A single subcutaneous dose of 2 ml of cocktail lysate (both RL and SL), eliminated live virulent Brucella from Brucellosis affected cattle with plasma level of Brucella specific 223 bp amplicon undetectable by RT-PCR and blood negative for live Brucella by culture in 3 months post-immunization. This is the first report on minimally invasive monitoring of the efficacy of antibacterial therapy employing plasma RNA specific for live bacteria as a biomarker as well as on the use of RB51 phage lysate for successful immunotherapy of Brucellosis in cattle.
Author summary
We report here a novel immunotherapy for cost effective and simple treatment of Brucellosis, a zoonotic disease of global importance. The two main novelties of this work which have important implications are the following: Plasma RNA (specific to Brucella abortus in this case) has been used as a biomarker for the first time to successfully monitor the efficacy of an antibacterial therapy (in this case, immunotherapy of brucellosis). There is no published report of such a biomarker for monitoring the therapy in Brucellosis or any other bacterial infection. Bacterial counts in spleen and other organs before and after phage therapy (after sacrificing) have been used in mice. However, this is not applicable in cattle and humans. Therefore, this novel application of a specific biomarker for periodic minimally invasive and non destructive monitoring of the efficacy of antibacterial therapy could be very useful in Medicine. The phage lysate of RB51 strain of Brucella abortus has been successfully used for immunotherapy of Brucellosis in cattle for the first time. Although S19 lysate has been used earlier in mice for prophylaxis, it induces only antibody and not cell mediated immune response which is essential for protection against intracellular pathogens like Brucella.
Citation: Saxena HM, Raj S (2018) A novel immunotherapy of Brucellosis in cows monitored non invasively through a specific biomarker. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 12(4): e0006393. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006393
Editor: John Pius Dalton, Queen’s University Belfast, UNITED KINGDOM
Received: December 18, 2017; Accepted: March 19, 2018; Published: April 11, 2018
Copyright: © 2018 Saxena, Raj. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.
Funding: The study was funded by Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana under the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) through grant number RKVY09VMC. HMS received the funding being the Principal Investigator of the project. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. URL of the University website is: www.gadvasu.in.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction
Brucellosis is a major re-emerging bacterial zoonosis of global importance affecting a range of different animal species and man worldwide and is of importance from economic and public health points of view. It remains an uncontrolled problem in regions of high endemicity such as Africa, the Mediterranean, Middle East, parts of Asia and Latin America[1]. Outbreaks of bovine Brucellosis caused by Brucella abortus are associated with abortion in the last trimester of gestation, delayed conception, temporary or permanent infertility in the affected animals, and weak newborn calves. It causes infertility in both sexes and adult male cattle develop orchitis. Hygromas involving leg joints are a common manifestation of Brucellosis. Once infected, the animal may become carrier and continue to shed the organism for long period[2].
Brucella abortus S19 and RB51 strains have been used to control bovine Brucellosis worldwide. However, S19 vaccination in adult animals has been shown to result in abortions and arthopathy in some cases. Antibodies induced by vaccination also interfere in serological diagnosis of the disease[3]. RB51 does not induce antibodies against smooth lipopolysaccharide detectable by routine serological tests and is responsible for inducing cell mediated immunity[4]. However, the RB51 organisms are Rifampicin resistant[5]. Both these vaccines are secreted in milk and can infect humans on direct contact and cause abortions in pregnant animals. An appropriate antibiotic therapy for animals and human beings is still disputed and would be too expensive in most of the animal species. Despite the availability of the two vaccines for bovines, the search for improved vaccines has continued[6].
Lytic bacteriophages quickly reproduce and grow exponentially in the viable bacterial cells and lyse the bacteria specifically without damaging the normal flora[7]. Phage lysed bacteria induce effective immunization and exhibit protective effect stronger than the vaccines produced by heat or chemical inactivation of bacteria[8, 9, 10]. Phage lysates are non toxic and immunization causes no known adverse reactions.
We explored the immunotherapeutic potential of phage lysates of S19 and RB51 in Brucellosis in adult cattle and employed Brucella specific RNA in plasma as a biomarker to monitor the effect of therapy in the live animal in a non destructive and minimally invasive manner.
Methods
Brucella abortus vaccine strains
Live organisms from the attenuated vaccines Brucella abortus—strain 19 and strain RB51 (Indian Immunologicals, Hyderabad) were used for making phage lysates (immunotherapeutic agent). The identity of strain 19 and strain RB51 organisms was confirmed by microscopy and biochemical tests viz. catalase, oxidase, urease tests and H2S production as per the standard methods [11]. The bacterial cultures were maintained on Brucella agar plates, Trypticase Soy Agar (TSA) and Farrell’s medium and slants by serial sub-culturing in Brucella selective broth on every fortnight and storing the cultures at 4°C.
Brucellaphage
A broad acting phage lytic to Brucella organisms isolated in our laboratory [12, 13] was used for lysing Brucella abortus strains 19 and RB51 for making lysates. Phage as a crude, concentrated suspension prepared in SM diluent, was first revived by agar overlay technique [14]. The procedure reported earlier[13] was followed. The phage preparation obtained as mentioned above was amplified to 250 ml master lot using the liquid culture method as described earlier [15].
Estimation of plaque forming unit (pfu count)
Serial 10 fold dilutions of the purified phage stock up to 10−12 were prepared in sterile SM buffer. Equal quantity of each phage dilution was mixed in 3 ml semisolid NZCYM agar at 47°C and seeded with the log phase cultures of Brucella abortus strain S19 and Brucella abortus strain RB51. After mixing properly, the soft agar in each tube was plated on hard Brucella agar plates and left for solidifying. All the plates were then incubated at 37°C for 48 hours. The plaques produced were counted and phage count was determined. The phage titer was expressed in pfu/ml after multiplying with the dilution factor.
Determination of Multiplicity of Infection of the phage against S19 and RB51 strains
The indicator strains Brucella abortus S19 and Brucella abortus RB51 were grown in about 100 ml NZCYM broth at 37°C (log phase). The bacterial cells were harvested in fresh sterile NZCYM broth aseptically after centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 20 min. The suspension was standardized to match with McFarland standard 3 (approx. 108 viable cells/ml) and distributed aseptically in 5ml aliquots in six sterilized test tubes in racks. Phage was added to make final phage: bacteria ratios of 1:104; 1:5x103; 1:103, 1:5x102; 1:102 and 1:50, respectively and were mixed thoroughly by vortexing and incubated at 37°C.100μl aliquots from each tube were taken aseptically at 20, 180, 240 and 300 min post incubation, mixed with melted NZCYM soft agar and spread on NZCYM+BSM agar plates after making appropriate dilution with 0.85% Normal Saline Solution (NSS). Plates were incubated at 37°C and colony count was conducted. The optimum phage-bacteria ratio that showed complete lysis of indicator strains Brucella abortus S19 and RB51 within shortest period of time was considered as Multiplicity of Infection(MOI) of the phage for all future uses.
Generation of phage lysates of Brucella
The method for generation of phage lysate preparations against Brucella abortus using Brucellaphage reported earlier [15] was suitably modified and used for making lysates of both S19 and RB51 [16]. The total viable count (TVC) of 24–48 hr Brucella selective broth culture of the strains S19 and RB51 incubated at 37°C was adjusted to 2 x 108 cfu/ml. Opacity of broth was adjusted to Mac Farland’s tube no 3 to obtain growth sufficient for appropriate antigenic biomass. Phage was added as per optimized MOI and TVC of the respective indicator strains (with phage bacteria ratio of 1: 50) and the mixture was further incubated for 6–7 hours at 37°C for complete lysis and clearance of turbidity. 100 ml each of phage lysate was prepared against both the strains (Brucella abortus S 19 and RB 51).
The phage lysate cocktail was then passed through a 0.1 μm filter (Pall Life Science) to separate out the phage from the lysate and the filtrate was stored in sterilized vials at 4°C. Sterile aluminium hydroxide gel suspension in saline in ratio of 1:10 was added to the preparation. Total protein content of the phage lysate, as determined by Nanodrop spectrophotometer, was 0.58 mg/ml for S19 lysate and 0.64 mg/ml for RB 51 lysate. The phage lysate cocktail (combination of Brucella abortus S19 and RB51 lysates) was prepared by addition of equal quantity of S19 phage lysate and RB51 lysate. Sterilized 1% Aluminium hydroxide gel suspension in saline was mixed aseptically with the test preparations in ratio of 1:10 (final Aluminium concentration 0.1%) and incubated at 37°C for 24 hours and then stored at 4°C. The phage lysates were then subjected to sterility and safety tests.
Sterility testing of lysates
A loopful of the lysate was suspended in 5ml BHI and BSM broth as well as streaked on BHI and BSM, Trypticase Soy Agar followed by incubation at 37°C. The broth and plates were examined up to 48 hours for any microbial growth.
Compliance with animal ethics
All the experimental protocols performed on mice and cattle were approved by the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC). Proposals GADVASU/2016/IAEC/33/09 and GADVASU/2016/IAEC/33/10 were approved by the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC) in its XXXIV meeting held on 2nd July, 2016 communicated vide its proceedings number IAEC/2016/481-509 dated 8th July, 2016.
Animals were kept in approved facilities with adequate feed, water, bedding, pucca flooring, covered space and light and all the methods were performed in accordance with the guidelines and regulations of the Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA), Animal Welfare Division, Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change.
Safety test of the phage lysates in mice
Safety test of all the preparations of lysates was conducted in mice as recommended in Indian Pharmacopoeia [17] before commencement of immunization of cattle. Three groups of three adult healthy mice, each were injected with 0.2 ml volume of lysate (S19 or RB51 or cocktail of both) by subcutaneous route. One group of three adult healthy mice was left untreated as control. The mice were observed for any untoward reaction or mortality up to 7th day of inoculation.
Immunotherapy trials in cattle
Trials of phage lysate therapy were carried out on 21 naturally Brucellosis affected adult cows. The Brucellosis positive adult cows were divided into four groups:
Group I animals (n = 6) were immunized with Brucella abortus S19 lysate only, Group II animals (n = 5) were immunized with Brucella abortus RB51 lysate only, Group III animals (n = 5) were immunized with cocktail of S19 and RB51 lysates. A dose of 2 ml lysate was administered through subcutaneous route whereas Group IV (n = 5) served as a control, and received no immunization.
Blood samples from cattle were collected from the jugular vein at 0 day and at 30, 60, 75 and 90 days post treatment for studying the immune response of the animals and for detection of nucleic acid specific to the Brucella organisms. Sera and plasma were separated from blood and stored at -20°C and -80°C, respectively till further use.
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbant Assay (ELISA)
The serum samples of cattle were tested using INGEZIM Brucella Bovina 2.0 serum ELISA kit. The kit is based on the indirect immunoenzymatic assay. The antigen used is a purified extract of the LPS of Brucella. The absence or presence of antibody in sera was determined by colorimetric reaction. The degree of the colour that develops (Optical Density measured at 450 nm) is directly proportional to the amount of antibody specific to B. abortus present in the sera of animals. The diagnostic relevance of the result is obtained by comparing the optical density (OD) that develops in wells containing samples with the O. D. from wells containing the positive control.
The test was considered valid when:
Total Leukocyte Count and Differential Leukocyte Count in the blood
The Total Leukocyte Count (TLC) of the blood samples collected from cattle at 0, 30, 60, 75 and 90 days post vaccination was determined by automatic Hematology Analyzer. Differential Leukocyte Count (DLC) was carried out by making smears on clean, grease—free glass slides, staining with Leishman’s stain and examining under the microscope.
ELISpot assay
Anticoagulated blood of lysate treated cattle was centrifuged at 2000–2500 rpm and leukocytes present in the buffy coat layer of the centrifuged blood were separated. Cells were counted on Neubauer’s Hemocytometer and adjusted to 2x105 cells/ml, and were stimulated in vitro by phage lysate preparations. Bovine IFN-gamma ELISpot Kit (Essence Life Sciences) was used for the assay. The assay was carried out as per instructions supplied with kit. The developed microplate was analysed by counting spots visually using a microscope. Quantitation of results was done by calculating the number of spot forming cells (SFC) per number of cells added to each well.
Monitoring the efficacy of therapy through Brucella abortus specific biomarker
Isolation of total RNA from the plasma samples of cattle was done as per the method reported earlier [18] with suitable modifications using RNA isolation kit TRI reagent BD (Sigma Aldrich). The modification in procedure was that equal volume of RNase-free isopropanol was mixed with the aqueous phase and kept at -80°C overnight, to allow sufficient precipitation of RNA[19].
The optical density of nucleic acid preparations was measured in an ultraviolet ray Nanodrop spectrophotometer. For quantification of the amount of RNA, readings were taken at wavelengths of 260 nm and 280 nm. The readings at 260 nm allow the calculations of the concentration of nucleic acid in the sample.
Pure preparations of RNA with OD260/280 ratio ranging between 2.0–2.2 were selected. The concentration of total RNA varied between 500–2200 ng/μL in various samples. The amount of RNA used for cDNA synthesis was 2 μg for each sample.
The RNA isolated from the Brucella abortus strain 19 organism from the live attenuated vaccine Bruvax (Indian Immunologicals) was used as a positive control for the RT-PCR detection of Brucella abortus.
Total RNA extracted was reverse transcribed into cDNA using high capacity cDNA reverse transcription kit (Applied Biosystems) as per the method reported earlier [20].
Primer sequences for Brucella
The RT-PCR assay for the amplification of the genes encoding 31 kDa B. abortus antigen was carried out by using Brucella genus specific primers B4/B5 reported elsewhere [21]which were got synthesized from Promega.
Sequences of the primers used for detection of B. abortus are given below:
B4F—5’-TGG CTC GGT TGC CAA TAT CAA-3’
B5 R—5’-CGC GCT TGC CTT TCA GGT CTG-3’
The size of amplified product was 223 bp.
RT-PCR for detection of Brucella abortus specific nucleic acids
In the present study, cDNA was prepared from RNA extracted from plasma samples which were then subjected to PCR amplification of B4/B5 gene. The method described earlier [22] was followed.
Results and discussion
The present study was undertaken to explore the potential of bacteriophage lysates of Brucella organisms as an immunotherapy for Brucellosis in cattle.
Brucella abortus live attenuated vaccine strains S19 and RB51 (Indian Immunologicals, Pune) were used for preparation of phage lysates. The Brucella organisms were cultured on Brucella selective agar. Identification of the S19 and RB51 organisms was done on the basis of cultural and staining characteristics and biochemical properties.
A phage lytic to Brucella organisms isolated earlier[13]was used in the present study. Brucella abortus strains S19 and RB51 were used for revival and propagation of phage. The plates having plaque formation were confirmed for the presence of phage by secondary streaking.
Host range of phage
The brucellaphage lysed Brucella abortus strain S 19, and Brucella abortus strain RB 51 but did not lyse any heterologous species tested viz. Salmonella species, Escherichia coli and Pasturella multocida.
Multiplicity of Infection
The optimum phage bacteria ratio to achieve maximum lysis of the indicator strains (Brucella abortus strain 19 and RB51) within the shortest period of incubation was found out to be 1:50. PFU/ml of the phage calculated by using several dilutions of the phage in SM buffer followed by plating (agar overlay technique) was 2.4 x 108 Pfu/ml. At higher dilutions the plaques were countable but the size of the plaques decreased appreciably. No reduction in counts was observed during the entire period of investigation.
Sterility test
The phage lysates were subjected to sterility tests and were found to be bacteriologically sterile when tested on BSM agar plates and free from any fungal contamination.
Safety testing
Safety tests of the preparations were conducted in mice as per the recommended protocol[17]. The mice were inoculated with lysates subcutaneously. All the mice survived and there was no untoward reaction or toxic side effects or any abnormal lesions during the course of observation period of seven days. The preparations were therefore considered to be safe in mice.
Immunotherapy of Brucellosis affected cattle with phage lysate
The present study was undertaken to explore the therapeutic potential of phage lysate of Brucella abortus vaccine strains S19 and RB51. Brucellaphage which was isolated earlier [12, 13] was used to prepare the phage lysates. The immunotherapeutic agents (phage lysates of Brucella abortus strain 19 and RB51) were injected only once in the Brucellosis affected cattle at a dose of 2 ml subcutaneously. The controls were left untreated. Pre (0 day) and post treatment (30, 60, 75 and 90 days) sera and plasma samples were collected and stored at -20°C and -80°C respectively till use. Titers of antibody induced by the phage lysates were estimated by indirect ELISA and cellular immune response was studied by evaluating the Total Leukocyte Count and Differential Leukocyte Count (TLC and DLC) in the immunized animals. ELISPOT assay was conducted to investigate γ- interferon production by the lymphocytes of the immunized animals.
Titers of anti Brucella antibodies in cattle treated with lysates
Antibody titers were monitored by ELISA pre- immunization (0 day) and at various intervals post-immunization in Brucellosis affected cattle immunized with phage lysates and in untreated infected cattle(Fig 1).
Antibody titers at 0 day and various intervals post-immunization in Brucellosis affected cattle treated with S19 lysate, RB51 lysate, or cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate as well as affected untreated cattle are shown in Table 1.
ANOVA and Tukey’s post-hoc test revealed that in case of Brucella abortus S 19 lysate immunized cattle, there was a significant (P<0.01) increase in the mean titers from 0 d to 75 day, 0 to 90 day, 30 to 75 day, 30 and 90 day and between 60 and 90 day. In case of Brucella abortus RB51 lysate immunized cattle, the mean titers varied significantly (P<0.01) between 0 to 60 day, 0 to 75 day, and 0 to 90 day. In case of cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate immunized cattle, there was a significant (P<0.01) increase in the titers from 0D to 30D, 60D, 75D, and 90D, from 30D to 75D and 90D, from 60D to 75D and 90D and from 75D to 90 days. In case of untreated cattle affected with Brucellosis the difference in the mean titers was non-significant.
The results indicate that the antibody titers enhanced considerably by Brucella abortus S19 lysate. Interestingly, Brucella abortus RB51 lysate immunization contributed to an enhancement in titer at a later stage, whereas cocktail lysate generated a robust antibody response which consistently increased significantly throughout the 3 months period of observation.
Cellular immune response in lysate immunized animals
The status of the cellular immunity in lysate immunized animals was investigated by assessing Total Leukocyte Count (TLC) and Differential Leukocyte Count (DLC) in peripheral blood of the infected animals at various intervals. The results are summarized in Fig 2.
The total leukocyte counts (x103/μL) at 0 day and various intervals post-immunization in Brucellosis affected cattle treated with S19 lysate, RB51 lysate, or cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate as well as affected untreated cattle are shown in Table 2.
ANOVA and Tukey’s post-hoc test revealed that in case of Brucellosis affected cattle immunized with Brucella abortus S19 lysate, the leukocyte counts increased significantly (P<0.01) from 0 day to 90 day; 30 day to 90 day and 60 day to 90 day, respectively and significantly (P<0.05) from 75 day to 90 day post immunization. In case of animals immunized with Brucella abortus RB51 lysate, it was observed that there was no significant difference in the total leukocyte counts between the various intervals. In animals immunized with cocktail lysate preparation (Brucella abortus S19 and RB51), there was a significant difference (P<0.05) in the total leukocyte count from 60 day to 90 day and 0 day to 90 day post-immunization. The differences among the mean values of 30D vs 90D and 60D vs 90D was significant (P<0.01). It was observed that the leukocyte counts in the Brucellosis infected untreated cattle did not vary significantly between 0 to 90 days.
Lymphocyte counts
The lymphocyte counts (percent) at 0 day and various intervals post-immunization in Brucellosis affected cattle treated with S19 lysate, RB51 lysate, or cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate as well as affected untreated cattle are shown in Table 3.
ANOVA and Tukey’s post-hoc test revealed that in case of untreated cattle the increase in lymphocyte counts (%) was significant (P<0.05) from 0 day to 90 day; 30 day to 90 day and 75 day to 90 day and the increase in the lymphocyte counts from 60 day to 90 day was significant (P<0.01). The variation in lymphocyte counts (%) in animals treated with Brucella abortus S19 lysate or cocktail (combination of Brucella abortus S19 and RB 51) lysate was non-significant at various intervals. However, in case of RB51 lysate immunized animals the increase in lymphocyte counts from 0 day to 30 day and 60 day to 90 day post immunization was significant (P<0.05). The increase in counts from 0 day to 60 day, 75 day and 90 day, 30 to 75 day and 90 day was significant (P<0.01).
Neutrophil counts
The neutrophil counts (percent) at 0 day and various intervals post-immunization in Brucellosis affected cattle treated with S19 lysate, RB51 lysate, or cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate as well as affected untreated cattle are shown in Table 4.
ANOVA and Tukey’s post-hoc test revealed that in animals which were treated with Brucella abortus S19 lysate, increase in the neutrophil count from 30 to 90 day and 60 to 90 day was significant (P<0.05). The increase in neutrophil levels from 0 to 90 day was significant (P<0.01). In case of animals immunized with Brucella abortus RB51 lysate, it was observed that there was no significant difference in the neutrophil counts between the various intervals. In animals treated with cocktail lysate preparation the difference between the mean values at 0D vs 90D was significant (P<0.01). The difference between the mean values at 0D vs 75D was significant (P<0.05). In Brucellosis affected animals which received no treatment, the variations in neutrophil counts were non-significant at various intervals.
ELISPOT assay
In order to assess the effect of RB51 lysate on cell mediated immune status of infected animals, γ-interferon production was taken as a criteria of induction of cellular immunity. Brucella spp. are facultative intracellular pathogens inducing a cell-mediated immunity which leads to the T-cell-dependent activation of macrophages through gamma interferon.
The effect of lysate immunization on cell mediated immunity against Brucella was assessed for detection of interferon-γ producing lymphocytes. The ELISPOT assay was carried out on peripheral blood lymphocytes from Brucellosis affected cattle treated with lysates of vaccine strains of Brucella. The number of spots indicating interferon-γ producing lymphocytes was taken as an index of stimulation of cell mediated immunity.
The production of interferon by peripheral blood lymphocytes of immunized animals was detected by ELISPOT assay (Fig 3). The number of spots per well was 1.916 ± 1.74 in S19 lysate treated, 94.583 ± 13.18 in RB51 lysate treated and 90.416 ± 17.05 in cocktail lysate treated animals. The difference between the mean values of spot forming cells (SFCs) of S19 and RB51 treated cattle was significant (P<0.01). The difference between the means of S19 vs cocktail treated animals was significant (P<0.01). The difference between the mean values of SFCs of RB51 vs combination of S19 and RB51 lysates immunized cattle was non-significant.
The Brucella abortus RB51 lysate induced a significantly (P<0.01) higher number of spots compared to S19 lysate. Similarly, the cocktail lysate induced significantly (P<0.01) higher amount of interferon-γ production in lymphocytes compared to Brucella aborus S19 lysate alone. This indicates that Brucella abortus RB51 lysate is very potent in stimulating the cell mediated immunity in cattle which could be protective against Brucellosis.
The interferon-γ assay, a rapid and convenient alternative to the DTH test, has been reported[23, 24], which appears to be an ideal method that is complementary to the serological diagnosis protocols. It has been reported[25] that IFN-gamma, which is an important mediator of acquired cell mediated immune response in murine model of Brucellosis, could be assayed for diagnostic purposes in the case of cattle also. Bovine IFN-γ has been used as a diagnostic test in the context of bovine Brucellosis, using Brucella proteins as an antigenic stimulus in vitro[26].
Effect of lysate treatment on total RNA concentration in plasma
The total plasma RNA concentrations were determined in lysate treated and untreated cattle affected with Brucellosis (Fig 4).
The total RNA concentrations in plasma at 0 day and various intervals post-immunization in Brucellosis affected cattle treated with S19 lysate, RB51 lysate, or cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate as well as affected untreated cattle are shown in Table 5.
ANOVA and Tukey’s post-hoc test revealed that in case of S19 lysate treated cattle, the decrease in RNA concentrations between 0D and 30D, 60D, 75D and 90D, between 30D versus 75D and 90D, between 60D versus 90D and between 75D versus 90D were significant (P<0.01). In case of RB51 lysate treated cattle the mean values of RNA decreased significantly (P<0.01) from 0D vs 30D, 60D, 75D and 90D, 30D vs 90D and 60D vs 90D (P<0.01). The differences in mean values between 30D vs 75D, 60D vs 75D and 75D vs 90D were significant (P<0.05). The difference in mean values between 30D vs 60D was nonsignificant. In case of cattle treated with cocktail lysate (S19+RB51) the decrease in RNA concentrations between 0D and 30D, 60D, 75D and 90D, from 30D to 75D and 90D and 60D vs 90D were significant (P<0.01). The decrease in RNA concentrations between 60D vs 75D was significant (P<0.05). The differences in mean values between 30D vs 60D and 75D vs 90D were nonsignificant.
Monitoring the effect of lysate therapy on plasma level of Brucella RNA by RT-PCR
The effect of lysate immunization on survival of Brucella in Brucellosis affected cattle was studied by RT-PCR of plasma RNA employing Brucella specific primers.
To study the efficacy of the phage lysates on clearing of Brucella organisms, Reverse Transcriptase-PCR was employed. RNA was isolated from the plasma samples of cattle. Pre-preparations of RNA with OD260/OD280 ratio ranging between 2.0–2.2 were selected. The concentration of total RNA varied between 400–2000 ng/μL in different samples. The amount of total RNA used for cDNA synthesis was 2μg for each sample.
The complementary DNA (cDNA) synthesized was amplified for the gene encoding 31 kDa Brucella abortus antigen (bcsp 31) using B4/B5 primers. At 0 day, as expected, the 31 kDa bcsp 31 PCR assay resulted in an amplicon of 223 bp when applied to the plasma samples of experimental animals in the trial.
After the administration of the phage lysates, the RNA based monitoring was carried out at regular intervals of 0, 30, 60, 75 and 90 days post treatment. Plasma samples were collected and then subjected to RT-PCR (Figs 5 & 6).
RTPCR of plasma RNA from lysate treated / untreated diseased cattle at 75th and 90th day. L1 = S19 lysate immunized animal no. 1 on 75th day post immunization; L2 = S19 lysate immunized animal no. 1 on 90th day post immunization; L3 = S19 lysate immunized animal no. 2 on 90th day post immunization; L4 = RB51 lysate immunized animal no. 1 on 75th day post immunization; L5 = RB51 lysate immunized animal no. 1 on 90th day post immunization; L6 = RB51 lysate immunized animal no. 2 on 90th day post immunization; L7 = Molecular marker; L8 = Cocktail (S19 lysate + RB51) lysate immunized animal no. 1 on 90th day; L9 = Cocktail (S19 lysate + RB51) lysate immunized animal no. 2 on 90th day; L10 = Cocktail (S19 lysate + RB51) lysate immunized animal no. 3 on 90th day; L11 = S19 lysate immunized animal no. 1 on zero day; L12 = RB51 lysate immunized animal no. 1 on zero day; L13 = Cocktail (S19 lysate + RB51 lysate) immunized animal no. 1 on zero day.
Lane L1: RB51 lysate immunized animal no. 1 on zero day; L2: RB51 lysate immunized animal no. 1 on 90th day post-immunization; L3: RB51 lysate immunized animal no. 2 on 90th day post-immunization; L4: RB51 lysate immunized animal no. 3 on 90th day post-immunization; L5: Marker ladder; L6: Cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate immunized animal no. 1 on zero day; L7: Cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate immunized animal no. 1 on 90th day post-immunization; L8: Cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate immunized animal no. 2 on 90th day post-immunization; L9: Cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate immunized animal no. 3 on 90th day post-immunization; L10: Untreated control animal no. 1 on zero day; L11: Untreated control animal no. 1 on 90th day; L12 Untreated control animal no. 2 on 90th day.
Microbial cultures of samples from treated cattle
Culture of blood, vaginal and uterine secretions on BSM agar showed no growth in case of lysate treated animals at 90D while in case of untreated animals it showed growth of Brucella organisms (Fig 7).
Top left: untreated, top right: S19 lysate treated, bottom left: RB51 lysate treated, and bottom right: cocktail lysate treated cattle.
Phage—Free lysates
When supernatant—free lysate pellets obtained after high speed centrifugation of whole lysates were streaked on S19 lawn, they did not lyse S19 organisms after incubation (Fig 8) indicating that the lysates were free of phage after filtration and the immunotherapeutic effect observed was due to the immunogens present in the lysates and not due to the phage.
The Brucella abortus amplified gene detected in Brucellosis infected untreated animals could be due to the live Brucella abortus organisms which persisted even after eliciting the immune response in the animal. The infected animal may act as a carrier by shedding the live organism in its secretions or excretions. The Brucella specific 223 base pair amplicon was clearly evident at 0 day in case of lysate treated animals but started diminishing at 75 day post immunization and became apparently invisible by 90 day indicating that, live Brucella organisms were reduced to almost negligible numbers after 3 months of treatment with lysate.
The plasma RNA diminished very prominently in case of Brucella abortus RB51 lysate immunized animals and cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate immunized animals and very substantially in S19 immunized animals. Since Brucella abortus RB51 is known to induce cell mediated immunity in cattle, the pronounced antibacterial effect in RB51 lysate immunized animals as well as cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate immunized animals was expected. The lysate of Brucella abortus S19 which is known to induce antibody alone, also contributed significantly in reducing the bacterial load due to antibody mediated effect on extracellular Brucella organisms. On the other hand the Brucella specific band was consistently and very conspicuously present throughout the period from 0 to 90 day in untreated cattle suggesting the persistence of bacteria in the host in large proportions.
This study is probably the first of its kind to demonstrate unequivocally the effect of phage lysate in treatment of bacterial infections with actual quantification of bacterial load before and after treatment in a minimally invasive way employing a Brucella specific biomarker. Moreover the therapeutic benefit of Brucella abortus RB51 lysate in infected adult cattle has been documented for the first time. The comparative study has reconfirmed the relative importance of antibody and cell mediated immunity in the treatment of Brucellosis.
In principle, the presence of one or another type of nucleic acid (DNA, rRNA, mRNA or tRNA) in bacterial cells might be a useful indicator of viability[27]. PCR is a rapid and sensitive method for detecting and identifying the bacterial organisms. DNA targeted PCR is incapable of determining bacterial viability as DNA is having high stability and is also demonstrated to persist in the PCR detectable form in culture negative environmental and clinical samples[22, 28]. Due to the short half life of RNA, it has been considered as plausible indicator of bacterial viability[29]. We have also found plasma RNA to be a good biomarker in phage therapy of bovine Brucellosis[30].
In a study[31], PCR method targeting bcsp 31 was found to be most sensitive than that for outer memberane protein 2 (omp 2) and 16S rRNA. The 16S rRNA gene PCR used for detection of bovine blood samples has been reported[32] to be insensitive. B4/B5 amplification was reported[33]to be most sensitive as it could amplify DNA extracted as low as 25 and 100 cfu/ml in 1 ml water and blood, respectively. Primer set B4/B5 used in our study was able to detect DNA at 715cfu/ml. It has been reported[34] that B4/B5 primer pair was able to detect the smallest number of bacteria (700cfu/mL).
Conclusions
A single dose of 2 ml of phage lysate of Brucella abortus attenuated strain RB51 alone or in combination with lysate of Brucella abortus attenuated strain S19 administered subcutaneously in naturally Brucellosis infected adult cows successfully eliminated virulent Brucella abortus from the infected cattle in 3 months which were negative on blood culture. Brucella specific RNA in blood plasma was found to be a useful biomarker for minimally invasive and non destructive monitoring of the effect of antibacterial therapy in Brucellosis affected cattle.
Supporting information
S1 Fig. Culture of B. abortus S19 (left) and RB51 (right) strains from the vaccines.
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S2 Fig. Lytic plaques (left) and lytic zones (right) formed by brucellaphage on S19 culture.
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S3 Fig. Sterility test of lysates (left: S19 and right: RB51) showing no growth of organisms.
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S4 Fig. RTPCR of plasma RNA from treated and untreated infected cattle at 0 and 75th day.
Note the diminished band in RB51 lysate and cocktail treated animals (lanes 8, 9, 11 & 12) Lane 1: S19 lysate immunized animal number 1 on zero day Lane 2: S19 lysate immunized animal number 1 on 75th day post-immunization (DPI) Lane 3: S19 lysate immunized animal number 2 on 75th DPI Lane 4: S19 lysate immunized animal number 3 on 75th DPI Lane 5: RB51 lysate immunized animal number 1 on zero day Lane 6: RB51 lysate immunized animal number 1 on 75th DPI Lane 7: Molecular marker ladder Lane 8: RB51 lysate immunized animal number 2 on 75th DPI Lane 9: RB51 lysate immunized animal number 3 on 75th DPI Lane 10: Cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate immunized animal number 1 on zero day Lane 11: Cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate immunized animal number 1 on 75th DPI Lane 12: Cocktail (S19+RB51) lysate immunized animal number 2 on 75th DPI Lane 13: Untreated infected (control) animal number 1 on zero day Lane 14: Untreated infected (control) animal number 1 on 75th day Lane 15: Untreated infected (control) animal number 2 on 75th day Lane 16: Untreated infected (control) animal number 3 on 75th day.
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