Note: Intro -- Special Foreword -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Atmospheric Perfluorinated Acid Precursors: Chemistry, Occurrence, and Impacts -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Mechanisms of Atmospheric Formation of Perfluorinated Acids -- 2.1 Perfluorocarboxylic Acids -- 2.1.1 Mechanisms for Atmospheric Formation of Perfluoroacyl Halides -- 2.1.2 Mechanisms for Direct Atmospheric Formation of PFCAs -- 2.2 Perfluorosulfonic Acids (PFSAs) -- 3 Chemistry of Perfluorinated Acid (PFA) Precursors -- 3.1 Volatile Anesthetics -- 3.1.1 CF3 (CF2) x CHClBr -- 3.1.2 CF3 (CF2) x CHClOCHF 2 -- 3.2 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) -- 3.2.1 CF3 (CF2) x CHFCl -- 3.2.2 CF3 (CF2) x CHCl 2 -- 3.3 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, Non-telomer Based) -- 3.3.1 Saturated Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) -- 3.3.2 Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) -- 3.4 Fluorotelomer and Related Compounds -- 3.4.1 Perfluorinated Aldehyde (PFAL) Hydrates -- 3.4.2 Perfluorinated Aldehydes (PFALs) -- 3.4.3 Fluorotelomer Aldehydes (FTALs) -- 3.4.4 Odd Fluorotelomer Alcohols (oFTOHs) -- 3.4.5 Even Fluorotelomer Alcohols (FTOHs) -- 3.4.6 Fluorotelomer Olefins (FTOs) -- 3.4.7 Fluorotelomer Iodides (FTIs) -- 3.4.8 Fluorotelomer Acrylate (FTAc) -- 3.5 Perfluoroalkanesulfonamides -- 3.5.1 N -Alkyl-perfluoroalkanesulfonamides (NAFSA) -- 3.5.2 N -Alkyl-perfluoroalkanesulfamidoethanols (NAFSE) -- 4 Atmospheric Sources and Levels -- 4.1 Volatile Fluorinated Anesthetics -- 4.2 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) -- 4.2.1 Potential Sources to the Atmosphere -- 4.2.2 Atmospheric Concentrations -- 4.3 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, Non-telomer Based) -- 4.3.1 Saturated Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) -- 4.3.2 Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) -- 4.4 Fluorotelomer Compounds -- 4.4.1 Potential Sources to the Atmosphere -- 4.4.2 Atmospheric Concentrations -- 4.5 Perfluorosulfonamides -- 4.5.1 Potential Sources to the Atmosphere. , 4.5.2 Atmospheric Concentrations -- 5 Impact of Precursors on Environmental Perfluorinated Acid (PFA) Levels -- 5.1 Trifluoroacetic Acid (TFA) -- 5.2 Perfluorooctanesulfonic Acid (PFOS), Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorononanoic Acid (PFNA) -- 5.3 Long-Chained Perfluorocarboxylic Acids (PFCAs) -- 6 Summary -- References -- Isomer Profiling of Perfluorinated Substances as a Tool for Source Tracking: A Review of Early Findings and Future Applications -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Isomer Nomenclature -- 3 Historical and Current Manufacturing Sources of Perfluoroalkyl Isomers -- 4 Isomer-Specific Analytical Methodologies -- 4.1 Current Analytical Separation Methods -- 4.2 Analytical Quantification Bias -- 4.3 Strategies for Isomer Separation by LC--MS/MS -- 5 Influence of PhysicalChemical Properties on Environmental Fractionation of Perfluoroalkyl Isomers -- 6 Characterization of Perfluoroalkyl Isomer Profiles in the Environment -- 6.1 PFOA Isomer Profiles -- 6.2 Perfluoroalkyl Sulfonate and Sulfonamide Isomer Profiles -- 6.3 Perfluorocarboxylate Isomer Profiles Other than PFOA -- 7 Differences in Toxicity and Bioaccumulation of PFA Isomers -- 8 Summary -- References -- Biodegradation of Fluorinated Alkyl Substances -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Persistence of Perfluorinated Surfactants -- 3 Understanding the Complex Biodegradation of Fluorotelomer-based Chemicals -- 4 Biodegradation of N-Alkyl Perfluorooctane Sulfonamide Derivatives -- 5 The Role of Fluorinated Polymers -- 6 On the Way to Mineralization Biodegradation of Organic Molecules that Have Low Fluorine Content -- 7 Summary -- References -- Perfluorinated Substances in Human Food and Other Sources of Human Exposure -- 1 Introduction -- 2 PFCs in Edible Fish and Seafood -- 3 Contamination of Food -- 3.1 Indirect Contamination of PFCs in Food Items. , 3.2 Direct Contamination of PFCs in Commercial Food Items -- 4 PFCs in Drinking Water -- 5 Safety Limits and Tolerable Daily Intakes -- 6 Perfluorinated Compounds in House Dust and Air -- 7 Correlation Between PFCs -- 8 Outlook -- 9 Summary -- References -- Index.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Prospective Environmental Risk Assessment for Sediment-Bound Organic Chemicals: A Proposal for Tiered Effect Assessment -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Benthic Ecology -- 3 Ecosystem Functions and Services Provided by Benthic Organisms -- 3.1 Dealing with Vulnerable Key Species -- 4 Specific Protection Goals for Sediment Risk Assessment -- 5 Triggers for Prospective Sediment Risk Assessment in European Regulatory Frameworks -- 6 Data Requirements for Effect Assessment -- 6.1 Toxicity Data Requirements in European Regulatory Frameworks -- 6.2 Main Differences Between Existing OECD, ASTM and US-EPA Guidelines -- 6.3 Recommendation for a Suite of Benthic Test Species -- 7 Factors Affecting the Exposure of Sediment-Dwelling Organisms -- 7.1 Chemical Factors -- 7.2 Biological Factors -- 7.3 Spatial Factors -- 7.4 Temporal Factors -- 8 Exposure Concentration in Sediment ERA -- 8.1 The Ecotoxicologically Relevant Concentration for Sediment-Dwelling Organisms -- 8.2 Overview of Fate and Exposure Models -- 8.3 Linking Exposure to Effects in Sediment ERA -- 9 Tiered Effect Assessment for Benthic Test Species and Spiked Sediments -- 9.1 Tiered Approach -- 9.2 Tier-0 Effect Assessment Based on Equilibrium Partitioning -- 9.3 Tier-1 Effect Assessment Based on Protocol Tests for Benthic Invertebrates and Macrophytes -- 9.4 Tier-2 Approach on Basis of Laboratory Toxicity Data for Standard and Additional Benthic Invertebrates and/or Rooted Macro... -- 9.4.1 Geometric Mean Approach -- 9.4.2 Species Sensitivity Distribution (SSD) Approach -- 9.5 Tier-3 Approach Based on Semi-Field Experiments -- 9.6 Tier-4 Approach Based on Field Studies -- 9.7 Effect Models to Supplement the Experimental Tiers -- 9.7.1 Individual Level Models -- 9.7.2 Population-Level Models -- 9.7.3 Ecosystem Level Models. , 9.7.4 Spatially Explicit Models -- 9.8 Effect Assessment for Vertebrates -- 9.9 Effect Assessment for Microorganisms -- 10 Sediment Effect Assessment: Case Studies -- 10.1 The Pharmaceutical Ivermectin -- 10.1.1 Evaluation of Standard and Additional Toxicity Data for Pelagic Organisms and Ivermectin -- 10.1.2 Tier-0 Effect Assessment for Ivermectin on Basis of Equilibrium Partitioning -- 10.1.3 Tier-1 Effect Assessment for Benthic Organisms and Ivermectin -- 10.1.4 Tier-2 Effect Assessment Based on Standard and Additional Test Species for Ivermectin -- Geometric Mean Approach -- Species Sensitivity Distribution Approach -- 10.1.5 Tier-3 Effect Assessment Based on Micro/Mesocosm Experiments for Ivermectin -- 10.1.6 Conclusions from the Ivermectin Toxicity Data for Benthic Organisms -- 10.2 The Insecticide Chlorpyrifos -- 10.2.1 Evaluation of Standard and Additional Toxicity Data for Pelagic Organisms and Chlorpyrifos -- 10.2.2 Tier-0 Effect Assessment for Chlorpyrifos Based on Equilibrium Partitioning -- 10.2.3 Tier-1 Effect Assessment for Benthic Organisms and Chlorpyrifos -- 10.2.4 Tier-2 Effect Assessment Based on Standard and Additional Test Species for Chlorpyrifos -- Geometric Mean Approach -- Species Sensitivity Distribution Approach -- 10.2.5 Tier-3 Effect Assessment Based on Micro/Mesocosm Experiments -- 10.2.6 Conclusions from the Chlorpyrifos Toxicity Data for Benthic Organisms for Chlorpyrifos -- 10.3 The Biocide Tributyltin -- 10.3.1 Evaluation of Standard and Additional Toxicity Data for Pelagic Organisms and Tributyltin -- 10.3.2 Tier-0 Effect Assessment for Tributyltin Based on Equilibrium Partitioning -- 10.3.3 Tier-1 Effect Assessment for Benthic Organisms and Tributyltin -- 10.3.4 Tier-2 Effect Assessment Based on Standard and Additional Test Species for Tributyltin -- Geometric Mean Approach. , Species Sensitivity Distribution Approach -- 10.3.5 Tier-3 Effect Assessment Based on Micro/Mesocosm Experiments for Tributyltin -- 10.3.6 Conclusions from the Tributyltin Toxicity Data for Benthic Organisms -- 10.4 Main Outcomes from the Case Studies -- 11 Main Recommendations for Prospective ERA for Sediment-Bound Organic Chemicals and Outlook -- 11.1 Specific Protection Goals -- 11.2 Triggers for Prospective Sediment ERA -- 11.3 Linking Exposure to Effects -- 11.4 The Tiered Approach in Effect Assessment -- 12 Summary -- Appendix 1: List of Workshop Participants -- Appendix 2: List of Abbreviations -- References -- How Important Is Research on Pollution Levels in Antarctica? Historical Approach, Difficulties and Current Trends -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Presence of Pollutants in Antarctica´s Environment -- 2.1 Abiotic Environment -- 2.1.1 Air -- 2.1.2 Snow and Ice -- 2.1.3 Soil and Permafrost -- 2.1.4 Catchment Areas -- 2.1.5 Ocean, Seas and Bottom Sediments -- 2.2 Biotic Environment -- 2.2.1 Plants -- 2.2.2 Crustaceans, Benthic Organisms and Fishes -- 2.2.3 Seabirds -- 2.2.4 Marine Mammals -- 3 Types of Pollutants Present in Antarctica´s Environment -- 4 Detailed Information Pertaining to Analytical Research in Antarctica -- 4.1 History of Research on the Chemical Composition of Samples from Antarctica -- 4.2 Pollution Concentration Levels Over Decades -- 4.3 Analytical Techniques in the Study of the Antarctic Environment -- 4.4 Impact of Research Station Activities on Pollution Levels -- 5 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Important Issues in Ecotoxicological Investigations Using Earthworms -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Role of Earthworms in Soil Ecosystems -- 3 Advances in Earthworm Ecotoxicology -- 4 Biomarker Responses and Issue of Linkage to Higher Level Responses -- 4.1 Biomarkers. , 4.2 Changes at Different Levels of Biological Organization -- 4.3 Establishing the Link Between Responses at Different Levels of Biological Complexity -- 5 Effects of Mixtures -- 5.1 Environmental Pollutants as Mixtures -- 5.2 Effects of Mixtures on Earthworms -- 5.3 Assessment of Effects of Mixtures -- 6 Occurrence of Hormetic Effect -- 6.1 Hormesis -- 6.2 Hormetic Effect in Earthworms -- 6.3 Hormetic Effect in Ecotoxicological Investigations -- 7 Inclusion of Microcosmic Systems in Ecotoxicological Investigations -- 7.1 Characteristics of Soil Microcosm -- 7.2 Soil Microcosm in Ecotoxicological Studies -- 8 Effects of Temperature Change on Toxic Effects of Pollutants and Biomarker Responses in Earthworms -- 8.1 Effects of Temperature Change -- 8.2 Interactions Between Temperature Change and Pollutant Toxicity to Earthworms -- 8.3 The Need for Further Assessment of the Effect of Temperature on Pollutant Toxicity to Earthworms -- 9 Conclusions -- 10 Summary -- References -- Index.