Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Investigating the Potential Toxicity of Hydraulic Fracturing Flowback and Produced Water Spills to Aquatic Animals in Freshwat... -- 1 Introduction -- 2 FPW Chemical Characterization -- 2.1 Major Ions -- 2.2 Trace Metals -- 2.3 Organic Chemicals -- 2.4 Wellbore Reaction Products -- 3 FPW Chemical Constituent Toxicity -- 3.1 Major Ion Toxicity -- 3.2 Trace Metal Toxicity -- 3.3 Organic Chemicals -- 3.3.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons -- 3.3.2 Volatiles -- 3.3.3 Synthetics -- 3.4 Whole FPW Toxicity -- 4 FPW Releases and Regulatory Guideline Considerations -- 5 Conclusions and Future Directions -- References -- Occurrence of Levonorgestrel in Water Systems and Its Effects on Aquatic Organisms: A Review -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Levonorgestrel Detection and Exposure Concentrations in the Aquatic Environment -- 3 Toxicity of Levonorgestrel to Aquatic Organisms -- 3.1 Toxicity of Levonorgestrel to Cyanobacteria -- 3.2 Toxicity of Levonorgestrel to Algae -- 3.3 Toxicity of Levonorgestrel to Zooplankton -- 3.4 Toxicity of Levonorgestrel to Molluscs -- 3.5 Toxicity of Levonorgestrel to Fish -- 3.6 Toxicity of Levonorgestrel to Amphibians -- 4 Aquatic Risk Assessment for Levonorgestrel -- 4.1 Measured Environmental Concentration (MEC) Selection -- 4.2 Effects Assessment -- 4.3 Estimation of Risk Quotients -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- A Review on the Environmental Exposure to Airborne Manganese, Biomonitoring, and Neurological/Neuropsychological Outcomes -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods: Literature Search Strategy -- 3 Results -- 3.1 Inhalation of Manganese: Evaluation of Airborne Manganese Levels -- 3.2 Biomarkers of Environmental Exposure to Manganese -- 3.3 Neurological and Neuropsychological Effects Assessed in Environmentally Airborne Manganese-Exposed Population. , 3.3.1 Cognitive Function -- Intelligence and General Cognitive Functioning -- Attention and Cognitive Flexibility -- Executive Functions -- Memory and Fluency -- 3.3.2 Motor Function -- Motor Speed -- Motor Coordination and Postural Balance -- Tremor -- Bradykinesia -- Hand Dexterity -- 3.3.3 Olfactory Function -- 3.3.4 Emotional Function and Mood -- 4 Discussion and Recommendations -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- Photodegradation of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) and Antibacterial Activity in Water by Transition Metals -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Transition Metals -- 3 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) -- 4 Global Production of Drinking Water -- 5 Photocatalysis -- 6 Mechanism of Photocatalysis -- 7 Treatment of PPCPs in Wastewater by Transition Metal-Modified Magnetite Photocatalysis -- 8 Visible Light-Responsive Nano-based Transition Metal Photocatalysts in Antibacterial Activity -- 9 Comparison Between Photocatalysts, Antibiotics, and PPCPs -- 10 Application of Transition Metals in Photocatalysis -- 11 Future Perspectives and Conclusion -- References -- Effects of Carbamazepine in Bivalves: A Review -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Marine Bivalves Exposed to Carbamazepine Under Laboratory Conditions: Toxicological Effects -- 2.1 Mussels -- 2.1.1 CBZ Effects on Physiological Processes -- 2.1.2 CBZ Effects on the Biotransformation and Detoxification Processes -- 2.1.3 CBZ Effects on Oxidative Stress-Related Parameters -- 2.1.4 CBZ Effects on Multiple General Stress Responses -- 2.1.5 CBZ Effects on the Mode of Action-Related Processes and Metabolic Pathways -- 2.2 Clams -- 2.2.1 CBZ Effects on Physiological Processes -- 2.2.2 CBZ Effects on the Biotransformation and Detoxification Processes -- 2.2.3 CBZ Effects on Oxidative Stress-Related Parameters -- 2.2.4 CBZ Effects on the Mode of Action-Related Processes -- 2.3 Oysters. , 3 Conclusions and Future Perspectives -- References -- Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) and Chronic Kidney Disease -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Method -- 3 The Compositions of PM2.5 -- 4 PM2.5 and CKD: Epidemiological Studies -- 5 PM2.5 and CKD: Progression and Prevention -- 6 PM2.5 and CKD: Mechanisms -- 7 Global Implication of Polices and Measurements -- 8 Conclusions -- References -- Correction to: Occurrence of Levonorgestrel in Water Systems and Its Effects on Aquatic Organisms: A Review.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Metalliferous Mining Pollution and Its Impact on Terrestrial and Semi-terrestrial Vertebrates: A Review -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methodology -- 3 Results and Discussion -- 3.1 Geographical and Temporary Distribution and Operational Status -- 3.2 Main Metal Ore -- 3.3 Sentinel Species -- 3.4 Biomarkers -- 3.4.1 Biomarkers of Exposure -- 3.4.2 Biomarkers of Effect -- Biochemical and Hematological Biomarkers -- Genotoxic Parameters -- Health Status at Individual Level -- Population and Community Level Biomarkers -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- Fluorotelomer Alcohols´ Toxicology Correlates with Oxidative Stress and Metabolism -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Metabolism of FTOHs -- 2.1 Metabolic Pathways and Toxicokinetics -- 2.2 Metabolising Enzymes -- 3 Toxicity -- 4 Toxicity Induced by Oxidative Stress -- 4.1 Generation of Oxidative Stress and ROS -- 4.2 Oxidative Damage -- 4.2.1 Damage to DNA -- 4.2.2 Damage to Lipids -- 4.3 Alterations in Antioxidant Status -- 4.4 Cell Signalling -- 5 Conclusion and Prospects -- References -- Perchlorate Contamination: Sources, Effects, and Technologies for Remediation -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Origins and Utilisation of Perchlorate -- 2.1 Natural Origin -- 2.2 Anthropogenic Origin -- 3 Environmental and Health Effects -- 3.1 Health Effects on Humans -- 3.2 Effects on Biota -- 4 Technologies for Perchlorate Treatment -- 4.1 Physicochemical Methods -- 4.1.1 Membrane-Based Technologies -- 4.1.2 Ion Exchange -- 4.1.3 Chemical Reduction -- 4.1.4 Electrochemical Reduction -- 4.1.5 Activated Carbon -- 4.2 Biological Treatment of Perchlorate -- 4.2.1 Types of Perchlorate-Reducing Bacteria -- 4.2.2 Habitats of Perchlorate-Reducing Bacteria -- 4.2.3 Environmental Requirements for Bacterial Degradation of Perchlorate. , 4.2.4 Biochemical Metabolism of Perchlorate-Reducing Bacteria -- 4.2.5 Application of Biological Reduction -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- Sources of Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria (ARB) and Antibiotic Resistance Genes (ARGs) in the Soil: A Review of the Spreading M... -- 1 Introduction -- 2 ARGs in the Soil Environment -- 3 Sources of ARGs in the Soil Environment -- 3.1 ARB and ARGs in Soils Due to Manure Application -- 3.2 Different Types of Manure Sources Influence ARGs Occurrence in the Soil -- 3.3 Wastewater as a Source of ARB and ARGs in the Soil -- 3.3.1 Release of ARB and ARGs from WWTP Effluents into the Soil -- 3.3.2 Impacts of Irrigation Using WWTP Effluents on the Abundance of ARB and ARGs in the Soil -- 3.3.3 Persistence of ARGs in WWTP Effluents as a Source of ARB and ARGs Dissemination in the Soil -- 3.3.4 Application of Sewage Sludge to Agricultural Soils -- 3.3.5 Deposition of ARGs from Livestock Excrements into the Soil Environment -- 3.3.6 ARGs in Native Soils -- 4 Dissemination of Associated-ARGs with Anthropogenically Impacted Environments into the Soil -- 4.1 Human Exposure Risk Related to Runoff and Leaching -- 4.2 Human Risk Exposure Pathways Due to Plants Uptake -- 4.3 Human Exposure Pathways Due to Groundwater Contaminated with Antibiotics and Their Related ARB and ARGs -- 5 Sorption of Antibiotics in Soil: ARB and ARGs Dissemination -- 5.1 Transfer of Antibiotics Resistance Genes in Agroecosystem -- 5.2 ARB and ARGs Associated Genes in Livestock Production Farms -- 6 Environmental and Ecological Effects of Soil Antibiotics and Related ARB and ARGs -- 7 Health Effects of Soil Contaminated Antibiotics and Their Related ARB and ARGs -- 7.1 Impact of Antibiotic Resistance on Human and Environmental Health -- 7.2 Ecological Health Risk Related to the Antibiotics and the Antibiotic Resistance. , 8 Suggestions and Mitigation Strategies -- 9 Conclusion -- References -- An Overview of Morpho-Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Responses of Sorghum Towards Heavy Metal Stress -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Heavy Metal Uptake, Translocation, and Accumulation in Sorghum -- 3 Impact of Heavy Metals on the Morphological Characteristics of Sorghum -- 4 Effect of Heavy Metals on the Physiological Aspects of Sorghum -- 5 Biochemical Changes in Response to Heavy Metals in Sorghum -- 6 Molecular Modulations Under Heavy Metal Stress in Sorghum -- 7 Future Prospects -- 8 Conclusion -- References -- Water and Soil Pollution: Ecological Environmental Study Methodologies Useful for Public Health Projects. A Literature Review -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods -- 3 Results -- 3.1 Type 1: Regression with Data by Geographical Area -- 3.2 Type 2: Regression Models at Individual Level -- 3.3 Type 3: Exposure Intensity Threshold Values for Evaluating Health Outcome -- 3.4 Type 4: Distance between Pollutant Source and Health Outcome Clusters -- 4 Discussion -- 5 Conclusion -- References.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- A Review on the Abundance, Distribution and Eco-Biological Risks of PAHs in the Key Environmental Matrices of South Asia -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Abundance of PAHs in SAR -- 2.1 Atmospheric Levels -- 2.2 Water Bodies -- 2.3 Soil/Sediments -- 2.4 Biota -- 3 Regional Comparison -- 3.1 Atmospheric PAHs -- 3.2 Region Abundance of PAHs in the Water Bodies -- 3.3 Soil/Dust/Sediments -- 4 Source Apportionment Techniques -- 5 Ecological Risk Assessment -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Environmental Pollution, Toxicity Profile and Treatment Approaches for Tannery Wastewater and Its Chemical Pollutants -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Leather Production and Chemicals Used in Tanning Process -- 3 Tannery Wastewater: Nature and Characteristics -- 4 Environmental Pollution and Toxicity Profile of Tannery Wastewater -- 5 Treatment Approaches for Tannery Wastewater and Chemicals -- 5.1 Physico-Chemical Treatment Approaches -- 5.1.1 Coagulation/Flocculation -- 5.1.2 Adsorption -- 5.2 Biological Treatment Approaches -- 5.2.1 Aerobic Treatment -- 5.2.2 Anaerobic Treatment -- 5.2.3 Constructed Wetlands and Treatment Ponds -- 5.3 Emerging Treatment Approaches -- 5.3.1 Membrane Technologies -- 5.3.2 Membrane Bioreactors -- 5.3.3 Anammox Technology -- 5.3.4 Advanced Oxidation Processes -- 5.4 Combinatorial Treatment Approaches -- 6 Waste Minimization, Operation, Treatment and Management in Leather Industries -- 6.1 Solid Waste Generation, Treatment and Management -- 6.2 Gaseous Emission and Control -- 6.3 Clean Technologies for Hazards Minimization -- 7 International Legislations Scenario for Tannery Wastewater and Chemicals -- 7.1 Legislations for Discharge Limits of Tannery Wastewater -- 7.2 Legislations for Leather Chemicals -- 8 Challenges and Future Prospects -- 9 Summary and Conclusion -- References. , Disposal of Unused Drugs: Knowledge and Behavior Among People Around the World -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods -- 3 Results -- 4 Discussion -- 4.1 Methods of Unwanted Residential Medication Disposal -- 4.2 An Overview on Available Legal Framework and Take Back Programs -- 4.3 Impact of Knowledge and Educational Campaigns on Disposal Practices of Unwanted Residential Medication -- 4.4 Future Perspectives and Possible Solution -- 5 Conclusion -- 6 Summary -- References -- Alkyl Mercury-Induced Toxicity: Multiple Mechanisms of Action -- 1 Preface -- 1.1 How Alkyl Mercury Compounds Get into the Food Web -- 2 Introduction -- 3 Methylmercury: Mechanisms of Toxic Action -- 3.1 Altered Membrane Permeability -- 3.2 Altered Intracellular Calcium Homeostasis -- 3.3 Oxidative Stress/Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) -- 3.4 Effects on Receptor Binding/Neurotransmitter Release -- 3.5 Effects Involving Arachidonic Acid -- 3.6 Effects on Cell Cycle/Cell Division -- 3.7 Effects on Glutathione (GSH) Activity -- 3.8 Involvement with Nitric Oxide Synthetase -- 3.9 Effects on Glial Cells and Glutamate-Glutamine Uptake and Homeostasis -- 3.10 Other Mechanisms -- 4 Ethylmercury: Mechanisms of Toxic Action -- 4.1 Mobilization of Intracellular Ca++ -- 4.2 Effects on Mitochondria (Membrane and ROS) -- 4.3 Effects on Arachidonic Acid, Leukotriene Synthesis, and Membrane Integrity -- 4.4 Effects on Glutathione (GSH) -- 4.5 Effects on Glutamate Transport -- 4.6 Effects on Neurotransmitter Availability -- 5 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Arsenic Induction of Metallothionein and Metallothionein Induction Against Arsenic Cytotoxicity -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Metallothionein Induction and the Role of As -- 3 Interaction of As with Blood Proteins -- 4 Interaction of As with Metallothionein -- 5 Accumulation and Metabolism of As -- 6 As Cytotoxicity and the Role of Essential Metals. , 7 Conclusion -- 8 Summary -- References -- Mobility and Fate of Pollutants in the Aquifer System of the Northwestern Suez Gulf, Egypt -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Background -- 2 Study Area Description (Geology and Hydrogeology) -- 3 Study Approach and Discussion -- 3.1 Structure Pattern, Intensive Use of Groundwater and Contamination Mixtures Mobilization Scenario -- 4 Summary and Conclusion -- References -- Index.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Review on Health Impacts from Domestic Coal Burning: Emphasis on Endemic Fluorosis in Guizhou Province, Southwest China -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Endemic Fluorosis in Guizhou Province -- 2.1 Origin of the Health Issue -- 2.2 Epidemiological Data -- 2.3 Possible Exposure Routes -- 2.3.1 Drinking Water -- 2.3.2 Foodstuffs -- 2.3.3 Other Exposure Routes -- 2.4 Possible Sources of Fluorine -- 2.4.1 Fluorine in Soil -- 2.4.2 Fluorine in Coal -- 2.4.3 Fluorine in Clay -- 2.5 Real Culprit of the Endemic Fluorosis in Guizhou Province -- 2.6 Control of the Endemic Fluorosis in Guizhou Province -- 3 Other Health Problems -- 4 Conclusion -- References -- Dissipation, Fate, and Toxicity of Crop Protection Chemical Safeners in Aquatic Environments -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods -- 3 Leaching -- 4 Sorption -- 5 Volatilization -- 6 Photolysis -- 7 Chemical Reduction and Nucleophilic Substitution -- 8 Biological Degradation -- 9 Toxicity -- 10 Conclusion -- 11 Methods for Laboratory Studies -- References -- Do Endemic Soil Fauna Species Deserve Extra Protection for Adverse Heavy Metal Conditions? -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Various Forms and Descriptions of Endemism -- 3 Where Are Endemic Species Found and Do They Occur in Metalliferous Areas? -- 4 Do Endemic Species Show a Higher or Lower Sensitivity for Adverse Environmental Factors? -- 5 Extra Protection for Endemic Species by Adapted Risk Assessment Procedures -- 6 Further Actions -- References -- Aflatoxin M1 in Africa: Exposure Assessment, Regulations, and Prevention Strategies - A Review -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Toxic Effects of AFM1 -- 3 AFM1 in Milk and Dairy Products -- 3.1 North Africa -- 3.2 East Africa -- 3.3 West Africa -- 3.4 Central Africa -- 3.5 Southern Africa -- 4 AFM1 in Human Biological Fluids: Breast Milk, Serum, and Urine. , 4.1 North Africa -- 4.2 Eastern Africa -- 4.3 West Africa -- 4.4 Central Africa -- 4.5 Southern Africa -- 5 Exposure Level Estimates in Africa -- 5.1 Exposure Through Milk Intake -- 5.2 Exposure Through Breast Milk and Urine Bio-Monitoring -- 6 Detoxification Strategies of AFM1 -- 7 AFM1 Regulations in Africa -- 8 Conclusion and Recommendations -- References -- In Vivo and In Vitro Toxicity Testing of Cyanobacterial Toxins: A Mini-Review -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Radionuclide Recovery In Vivo -- 2.1 Toxicity of Microcystin-LR In Vivo -- 2.2 Toxicity of Cylindrospermopsins In Vivo -- 3 Immunochemistry -- 3.1 Toxicity of Microcystin In Vivo -- 3.2 Toxicity of Cylindrospermopsins In Vivo -- 4 Daphnia Magna Test -- 4.1 Toxicity of Microcystin In Vivo -- 4.2 Toxicity of Anatoxin-a In Vivo -- 5 Artemia Salina Assay -- 5.1 Toxicity of Cylindrospermopsins In Vivo -- 5.2 Toxicity of Anatoxin-a In Vivo -- 5.3 Toxicity of Microcystin In Vivo -- 5.4 Toxicity of Saxitoxin In Vivo -- 6 Micronucleus Assay -- 6.1 Toxicity of Microcystin-LR In Vivo -- 6.2 Toxicity of Cylindrospermopsins In Vitro -- 6.3 Toxicity of Nodularin In Vivo -- 7 Cytotoxicity (Neutral Red) Assay -- 7.1 Toxicity of Microcystin In Vitro -- 7.2 Toxicity Detection of Cylindrospermopsins In Vivo and In Vitro -- 8 Comet Assay -- 8.1 Toxicity of Microcystin In Vivo -- 8.2 Toxicity of Cylindrospermopsins In Vitro and In Vivo -- 9 Annexin V-FITC Assay (Fluorescein Isothiocyanate Labeled Annexin V) -- 9.1 Toxicity of Cylindrospermopsins In Vitro -- 9.2 Toxicity of Microcystin and Anatoxin-a In Vitro -- 9.3 Toxicity of Nodularin In Vitro -- 10 MTT Assay -- 10.1 Toxicity of Cylindrospermopsins In Vivo -- 10.2 Toxicity of Cylindrospermopsins, Microcystins, and Anatoxin-a In Vitro -- 10.3 Toxicity of Microcystin-LR In Vitro -- 11 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). , 11.1 Toxicity of Microcystins and Nodularin In Vivo and In Vitro -- 11.2 Toxicity of Saxitoxins In Vitro -- 12 Protein Phosphatase Inhibition Assay (PPIA) -- 12.1 Identification of Microcystins and Nodularins Through PPIA In Vitro Assays -- 13 Conclusion -- References -- Comprehensive Review of Cadmium Toxicity Mechanisms in Male Reproduction and Therapeutic Strategies -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Cd Toxicity on Male Reproduction -- 2.1 Animal Experiments -- 2.2 Clinical or Epidemiological Studies -- 2.3 Relevance of Studies in Animals to Human Exposure and Potential Risks -- 3 Cd Toxicity on Offspring -- 4 Mechanism of Cd Damage on Male Reproductive System -- 4.1 Activation of Oxidative Stress -- 4.2 Induction of Gonad Inflammation -- 4.3 Impairment of Endocrine System -- 4.4 Competition with Essential Trace Elements -- 4.5 Changes in Epigenetics -- 5 Potential Therapeutic Strategies -- 5.1 Inhibition of Oxidative Stress -- 5.2 Anti-Gonad Inflammation -- 5.3 Recovery of Endocrine System -- 5.4 Supplementation with Essential Trace Elements -- 6 Conclusion and Recommendations -- References -- Micronuclei in Fish Erythrocytes as Genotoxic Biomarkers of Water Pollution: An Overview -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Micronucleus Test -- 3 Fish Species -- 4 Experimental Conditions -- 4.1 Catching of Wild Fish in Polluted Waters -- 4.2 In Situ Exposure of Caged Fish in Polluted Waters -- 4.3 Laboratory Exposure of Fish to Sampled Polluted Waters -- 5 Results of the Studies -- 6 Conclusions -- References.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Aluminium Toxicity to Plants as Influenced by the Properties of the Root Growth Environment Affected by Other Co-Stressors: A ... -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Mechanisms of Aluminium Toxicity -- 3 Morphological Changes in Roots -- 4 Aluminium and Channel Interactions -- 5 Aluminium-Induced Changes at the Cell Wall -- 6 DNA Damage Under Aluminium -- 7 Plant Mechanisms of Al Tolerance -- 7.1 External Mechanisms -- 7.2 Internal Mechanisms -- 8 Aluminium Toxicity to Plants as Affected by Soil Environment Properties -- 8.1 Aluminium and Drought Interaction -- 8.2 Aluminium and Oxidative Stress -- 8.3 Aluminium Interaction with Heavy Metals -- 8.4 Aluminium Interaction with Soil Nutrients -- 8.5 Aluminium and Nitrogen Interaction -- 8.6 Aluminium and Calcium Interaction -- 8.7 Aluminium and Magnesium Interaction -- 8.8 Aluminium and Phosphorus Interaction -- 8.9 Aluminium and Silicon Interaction -- 8.10 Aluminium and Boron Interaction -- 9 Conclusion -- 10 Summary -- References -- ARSENIC: A Review on Exposure Pathways, Accumulation, Mobility and Transmission into the Human Food Chain -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Pathways of Exposure -- 3 Transmission and Mobility of Arsenic in Environment -- 4 Transfer from Soil-Water to Plants -- 5 Arsenic in Plants -- 6 Arsenic in Rice and Effect of Processing -- 7 Conclusion -- 8 Summary -- References -- Modelling the Release, Transport and Fate of Engineered Nanoparticles in the Aquatic Environment - A Review -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Previous Overviews and Critical Publications -- 3 Small-Scale Modelling -- 3.1 Population Balance Models -- 3.2 Mass Concentrations -- 3.3 Dissolution -- 3.4 Chemical and Physical Reactivity -- 3.5 DLVO Theory -- 3.6 Particle Dynamics -- 4 Intermediate Scale: Environmental and Technical Compartments -- 4.1 Groundwater and Soil. , 4.2 Surface Waters -- 4.3 Wastewater Treatment Plants and Other Technical Compartments -- 4.4 Probabilistic Methods -- 5 Large-Scale Modelling -- 5.1 Multimedia Models -- 5.2 Material Flow Analysis and Exposure Modelling -- 5.3 GIS Approaches -- 6 Conclusions and Summary -- 6.1 Data on Use, Production and Emission -- 6.2 Modelling Processes in the Environment -- 6.3 Open Questions and Guidelines -- A Mathematical Details -- A.1 Population Balance Theory -- A.2 DLVO Theory -- A.3 Transport and Adsorption in Groundwater -- References -- Impact of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals on the Agricultural Environment: A Re-inspection -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Antibiotics and Anti-parasitic Pharmaceuticals: Presentation and Production -- 1.2 Occurrence of VPS in Manure and Soil -- 2 Stability of VPs in Manure and Soil -- 2.1 Biodegradation in Soil -- 2.2 Abiotic Degradation in Soil -- 2.3 Half-Lives in Manure -- 3 Leaching from Soil to Groundwater -- 3.1 Literature Data on VP Leaching -- 3.2 Occurrence of VPs in Ground Waters and Comparison to Leaching Data -- 4 VPs vs. Soil Microorganisms -- 4.1 Toxicity Toward Soil Bacteria and Fungi -- 4.2 Resistance of Bacteria -- 5 VPs vs. Plants -- 5.1 Uptake and Translocation -- 5.2 Metabolism -- 5.3 Toxicity -- 6 Current Legislation and Regulation -- 7 Conclusion and Summary -- References -- Cadmium Bioaccumulation in Aquatic Oligochaetes Using a Biodynamic Model: A Review of Values of Physiological Parameters and M... -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Physiological Parameters: A Review -- 2.1 Ingestion Rates -- 2.2 Assimilation Efficiencies -- 2.3 Biokinetic Parameters in Cd Bioaccumulation by Aquatic Oligochaetes -- 3 Results -- 3.1 Physiological Parameters -- 3.2 Application of the Biodynamic Model to Laboratory Cd Spiked-Sediment Bioassays with Tubifex tubifex. , 3.3 Application of the Biodynamic Model to Field-Collected Aquatic Oligochaetes or those Exposed to Field Sediments in Laborat... -- 4 Discussion -- 5 Conclusions -- 6 Summary -- References -- Index.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Microplastics in the Food Chain: Food Safety and Environmental Aspects -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Plastic Material -- 2.1 Top 5 Plastics Found in Waste -- 2.1.1 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) -- 2.1.2 Polypropylene (PP) -- 2.1.3 Polyphthalamide (PPA) -- 2.1.4 High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) -- 2.1.5 Polyethylene (PE) -- 3 Degradation of Plastic Polymers -- 3.1 Biodegradable Plastic -- 4 Plastic Waste Disposal -- 4.1 Burying in Landfill -- 4.2 Incineration -- 4.3 Recycling -- 5 EU Legislation Regarding Plastic Waste -- 5.1 Circular Economy Action Plan -- 5.1.1 Make Recycling Profitable for Business -- 5.1.2 Curb Plastic Waste -- 5.1.3 Stop Littering at Sea -- 5.1.4 Drive Investment and Innovation -- 5.1.5 Spur Change Across the World -- 6 Environmental Aspects -- 6.1 Terrestrial Ecosystem -- 6.2 Marine Ecosystem -- 6.3 Freshwater Ecosystem -- 6.4 Microplastics in Aquatic Organisms of Commercial Interest -- 7 Food Safety Aspects -- 7.1 Adverse Effects -- 7.2 Potential Effects on Humans -- 8 Conclusions -- References -- Toxicity of Graphene: An Update -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Physiochemical Properties Determine the Fate and the Toxicity of Graphene -- 3 In Vitro Toxicity -- 4 In Vivo Toxicity -- 5 Simulation Studies on Graphene Toxicity -- 6 Environmental Toxicity -- 7 Toxicity Is Beneficial in the Context of Cancer and Microbiology! -- 8 How to Reduce the Toxicity? -- 9 Conclusion -- References -- Multi-Level Gene Expression in Response to Environmental Stress in Aquatic Invertebrate Chironomids: Potential Applications in... -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Chironomids as Bioindicator Species in Aquatic Ecosystem -- 3 Molecular Genetic Research on Environmental Stress in Chironomids -- 3.1 Gene Responses to Physical Stressors in Chironomids -- 3.1.1 Heat Shock -- 3.1.2 Temperature. , 3.2 Gene Responses to Chemical Stressors in Chironomids -- 3.2.1 UV Filters -- 3.2.2 Heavy Metals -- 3.2.3 Nanoparticles -- 3.2.4 Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals (EDCs) -- 3.2.5 Insecticides -- 3.2.6 Antibiotics -- 3.2.7 Herbicides -- 3.2.8 Fungicides and Biocides -- 3.2.9 Carcinogenic Substances and Synthetic Estrogen -- 3.2.10 Mixture and Field Exposure -- 4 Discussion -- 5 Conclusion -- References -- Role of Structural Morphology of Commodity Polymers in Microplastics and Nanoplastics Formation: Fragmentation, Effects and As... -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Plastics, Microplastics and Nanoplastics -- 2 Sources and Behaviour -- 2.1 Properties of Commodity Polymers -- 2.2 Mechanical Properties -- 3 Fragmentation Pathways -- 4 Common Commercial Plastics and Their MP/NP Derivatives -- 4.1 Thermoplastics -- 4.1.1 Polyethylene -- 4.1.2 Polypropylene -- 4.1.3 Polystyrene -- 4.1.4 Polyvinyl Chloride -- 4.1.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate -- 4.2 Thermosets -- 4.2.1 Polyurethane -- 4.2.2 Epoxy Resins -- 4.2.3 Poly(Styrene-Co-Divinylbenzene) -- 4.2.4 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber -- 5 Toxicity of Commodity Polymer MPs and NPs -- 5.1 Thermoplastics -- 5.1.1 Polyethylene -- 5.1.2 Polypropylene -- 5.1.3 Polystyrene -- 5.1.4 Polyvinyl Chloride -- 5.1.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate -- 5.2 Thermosets -- 5.2.1 Polyurethanes -- 5.2.2 Epoxy Resins -- 5.2.3 Poly(Styrene-Co-Divinylbenzene) -- 5.2.4 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber -- 5.2.5 Interactions with Other Contaminants -- 6 Detection -- 7 Regulations and International Initiatives -- 8 Conclusions -- References -- Prioritization of Pesticides for Assessment of Risk to Aquatic Ecosystems in Canada and Identification of Knowledge Gaps -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods -- 2.1 Scope of the Review -- 2.2 Identification of Pesticides of Top Concern for Aquatic Biota -- 3 Pesticides in the Canadian Aquatic Environment. , 3.1 National Results and Regional Contexts -- 3.2 Top-Priority Active Ingredients -- 3.3 Review of Top-Priority Active Ingredients -- 3.3.1 Herbicides -- Atrazine -- Presence in the Aquatic Environment -- Toxicity Towards Aquatic Organisms -- Exposure Risks for Aquatic Organisms -- Diquat -- Presence in the Aquatic Environment -- Toxicity Towards Aquatic Organisms -- Exposure Risks for Aquatic Organisms -- S-Metolachlor -- Presence in the Aquatic Environment -- Toxicity Towards Aquatic Organisms -- Exposure Risks for Aquatic Organisms -- 3.3.2 Insecticides -- Chlorpyrifos -- Presence in the Aquatic Environment -- Toxicity Towards Aquatic Organisms -- Exposure Risks for Aquatic Organisms -- Clothianidin -- Presence in the Aquatic Environment -- Toxicity Towards Aquatic Organisms -- Exposure Risks for Aquatic Organisms -- Permethrin -- Presence in the Aquatic Environment -- Toxicity Towards Aquatic Organisms -- Exposure Risks for Aquatic Organisms -- 3.3.3 Fungicides -- Chlorothalonil -- Presence in the Aquatic Environment -- Toxicity Towards Aquatic Organisms -- Exposure Risks for Aquatic Organisms -- 4 General Knowledge Gaps and Recommendations -- 4.1 Baseline Fish and Fish Habitat Data -- 4.2 Pesticide Monitoring Data -- 4.3 Marine and Sediment Benchmarks -- 4.4 Mixture Toxicity -- 4.5 Study Design and Analytical Methods for Compounds with Low Benchmarks -- 4.6 Habitat and Food Web-Mediated Effects on Fish -- 4.7 Current-Use and Legacy Pesticides in the Arctic -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- Correction to: Prioritization of Pesticides for Assessment of Risk to Aquatic Ecosystems in Canada and Identification of Knowl.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Prospective Environmental Risk Assessment for Sediment-Bound Organic Chemicals: A Proposal for Tiered Effect Assessment -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Benthic Ecology -- 3 Ecosystem Functions and Services Provided by Benthic Organisms -- 3.1 Dealing with Vulnerable Key Species -- 4 Specific Protection Goals for Sediment Risk Assessment -- 5 Triggers for Prospective Sediment Risk Assessment in European Regulatory Frameworks -- 6 Data Requirements for Effect Assessment -- 6.1 Toxicity Data Requirements in European Regulatory Frameworks -- 6.2 Main Differences Between Existing OECD, ASTM and US-EPA Guidelines -- 6.3 Recommendation for a Suite of Benthic Test Species -- 7 Factors Affecting the Exposure of Sediment-Dwelling Organisms -- 7.1 Chemical Factors -- 7.2 Biological Factors -- 7.3 Spatial Factors -- 7.4 Temporal Factors -- 8 Exposure Concentration in Sediment ERA -- 8.1 The Ecotoxicologically Relevant Concentration for Sediment-Dwelling Organisms -- 8.2 Overview of Fate and Exposure Models -- 8.3 Linking Exposure to Effects in Sediment ERA -- 9 Tiered Effect Assessment for Benthic Test Species and Spiked Sediments -- 9.1 Tiered Approach -- 9.2 Tier-0 Effect Assessment Based on Equilibrium Partitioning -- 9.3 Tier-1 Effect Assessment Based on Protocol Tests for Benthic Invertebrates and Macrophytes -- 9.4 Tier-2 Approach on Basis of Laboratory Toxicity Data for Standard and Additional Benthic Invertebrates and/or Rooted Macro... -- 9.4.1 Geometric Mean Approach -- 9.4.2 Species Sensitivity Distribution (SSD) Approach -- 9.5 Tier-3 Approach Based on Semi-Field Experiments -- 9.6 Tier-4 Approach Based on Field Studies -- 9.7 Effect Models to Supplement the Experimental Tiers -- 9.7.1 Individual Level Models -- 9.7.2 Population-Level Models -- 9.7.3 Ecosystem Level Models. , 9.7.4 Spatially Explicit Models -- 9.8 Effect Assessment for Vertebrates -- 9.9 Effect Assessment for Microorganisms -- 10 Sediment Effect Assessment: Case Studies -- 10.1 The Pharmaceutical Ivermectin -- 10.1.1 Evaluation of Standard and Additional Toxicity Data for Pelagic Organisms and Ivermectin -- 10.1.2 Tier-0 Effect Assessment for Ivermectin on Basis of Equilibrium Partitioning -- 10.1.3 Tier-1 Effect Assessment for Benthic Organisms and Ivermectin -- 10.1.4 Tier-2 Effect Assessment Based on Standard and Additional Test Species for Ivermectin -- Geometric Mean Approach -- Species Sensitivity Distribution Approach -- 10.1.5 Tier-3 Effect Assessment Based on Micro/Mesocosm Experiments for Ivermectin -- 10.1.6 Conclusions from the Ivermectin Toxicity Data for Benthic Organisms -- 10.2 The Insecticide Chlorpyrifos -- 10.2.1 Evaluation of Standard and Additional Toxicity Data for Pelagic Organisms and Chlorpyrifos -- 10.2.2 Tier-0 Effect Assessment for Chlorpyrifos Based on Equilibrium Partitioning -- 10.2.3 Tier-1 Effect Assessment for Benthic Organisms and Chlorpyrifos -- 10.2.4 Tier-2 Effect Assessment Based on Standard and Additional Test Species for Chlorpyrifos -- Geometric Mean Approach -- Species Sensitivity Distribution Approach -- 10.2.5 Tier-3 Effect Assessment Based on Micro/Mesocosm Experiments -- 10.2.6 Conclusions from the Chlorpyrifos Toxicity Data for Benthic Organisms for Chlorpyrifos -- 10.3 The Biocide Tributyltin -- 10.3.1 Evaluation of Standard and Additional Toxicity Data for Pelagic Organisms and Tributyltin -- 10.3.2 Tier-0 Effect Assessment for Tributyltin Based on Equilibrium Partitioning -- 10.3.3 Tier-1 Effect Assessment for Benthic Organisms and Tributyltin -- 10.3.4 Tier-2 Effect Assessment Based on Standard and Additional Test Species for Tributyltin -- Geometric Mean Approach. , Species Sensitivity Distribution Approach -- 10.3.5 Tier-3 Effect Assessment Based on Micro/Mesocosm Experiments for Tributyltin -- 10.3.6 Conclusions from the Tributyltin Toxicity Data for Benthic Organisms -- 10.4 Main Outcomes from the Case Studies -- 11 Main Recommendations for Prospective ERA for Sediment-Bound Organic Chemicals and Outlook -- 11.1 Specific Protection Goals -- 11.2 Triggers for Prospective Sediment ERA -- 11.3 Linking Exposure to Effects -- 11.4 The Tiered Approach in Effect Assessment -- 12 Summary -- Appendix 1: List of Workshop Participants -- Appendix 2: List of Abbreviations -- References -- How Important Is Research on Pollution Levels in Antarctica? Historical Approach, Difficulties and Current Trends -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Presence of Pollutants in Antarctica´s Environment -- 2.1 Abiotic Environment -- 2.1.1 Air -- 2.1.2 Snow and Ice -- 2.1.3 Soil and Permafrost -- 2.1.4 Catchment Areas -- 2.1.5 Ocean, Seas and Bottom Sediments -- 2.2 Biotic Environment -- 2.2.1 Plants -- 2.2.2 Crustaceans, Benthic Organisms and Fishes -- 2.2.3 Seabirds -- 2.2.4 Marine Mammals -- 3 Types of Pollutants Present in Antarctica´s Environment -- 4 Detailed Information Pertaining to Analytical Research in Antarctica -- 4.1 History of Research on the Chemical Composition of Samples from Antarctica -- 4.2 Pollution Concentration Levels Over Decades -- 4.3 Analytical Techniques in the Study of the Antarctic Environment -- 4.4 Impact of Research Station Activities on Pollution Levels -- 5 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Important Issues in Ecotoxicological Investigations Using Earthworms -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Role of Earthworms in Soil Ecosystems -- 3 Advances in Earthworm Ecotoxicology -- 4 Biomarker Responses and Issue of Linkage to Higher Level Responses -- 4.1 Biomarkers. , 4.2 Changes at Different Levels of Biological Organization -- 4.3 Establishing the Link Between Responses at Different Levels of Biological Complexity -- 5 Effects of Mixtures -- 5.1 Environmental Pollutants as Mixtures -- 5.2 Effects of Mixtures on Earthworms -- 5.3 Assessment of Effects of Mixtures -- 6 Occurrence of Hormetic Effect -- 6.1 Hormesis -- 6.2 Hormetic Effect in Earthworms -- 6.3 Hormetic Effect in Ecotoxicological Investigations -- 7 Inclusion of Microcosmic Systems in Ecotoxicological Investigations -- 7.1 Characteristics of Soil Microcosm -- 7.2 Soil Microcosm in Ecotoxicological Studies -- 8 Effects of Temperature Change on Toxic Effects of Pollutants and Biomarker Responses in Earthworms -- 8.1 Effects of Temperature Change -- 8.2 Interactions Between Temperature Change and Pollutant Toxicity to Earthworms -- 8.3 The Need for Further Assessment of the Effect of Temperature on Pollutant Toxicity to Earthworms -- 9 Conclusions -- 10 Summary -- References -- Index.

Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- In-Situ Remediation Approaches for the Management of Contaminated Sites: A Comprehensive Overview -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Selection and Suitability of Remedial Measures -- 3 In-Situ Remediation Technologies for Soil and Groundwater -- 3.1 Heating -- 3.1.1 Injection: Steam/Hot Air -- 3.1.2 Electrical Resistance Heating -- 3.1.3 Electromagnetic Heating: Radio Frequency/Microwave -- 3.1.4 Thermal Conductive Heating/Thermal Desorption -- 3.1.5 Vitrification -- 3.2 Soil Flushing -- 3.3 Fracturing: Pneumatic/Blast-Enhanced/Lasagna™/Hydro -- 3.4 Physical Barriers: Treatment Walls/Permeable Reactive Barriers -- 3.5 Soil Vapor Extraction -- 3.6 Electrokinetic Remediation -- 3.7 Multi 3-Phase/Dual-Phase/Vacuum-Enhanced Extraction/Bioslurping -- 3.8 Air Sparging -- 3.9 Bioventing -- 3.10 Natural Attenuation -- 3.11 Phytoremediation -- 3.12 Bioaugmentation -- 3.13 Biostimulation -- 3.14 Biosorption -- 4 Emerging Technologies -- 4.1 Microbial Fuel Cells -- 4.2 Nanoremediation -- 4.3 Transgenic Plants and Microbes -- 4.4 Microbial Consortia in Photo-Hetero Microbial System -- 5 Challenges and Prospects -- 6 Summary -- References -- Ex-Situ Remediation Technologies for Environmental Pollutants: A Critical Perspective -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Ex-Situ vs. In-Situ Remediation -- 3 Existing Ex-Situ Remedial Options for Contaminated Soil and Groundwater: Technology Profile and Recent Advances -- 3.1 Dig-and-Dump (Landfills and Engineered Landfills) -- 3.2 Pump-and-Treat -- 3.3 Incineration -- 3.4 Oxidation -- 3.5 Adsorption -- 3.6 Ion-Exchange -- 3.7 Pyrolysis -- 3.8 Soil Washing -- 3.9 Dehalogenation -- 3.10 Solid-Phase Bioremediation -- 3.10.1 Biopiles -- 3.10.2 Landfarming -- 3.10.3 Composting -- 3.11 Slurry-Phase Bioremediation: Bioreactors -- 3.12 Solidification/Stabilization -- 3.13 Constructed Wetlands. , 4 Ex-Situ Technologies for Air Pollution Control -- 5 Emerging Ex-Situ Remediation Technologies -- 5.1 Ultrasonic Technology -- 5.2 Microbial Fuel Cells, Nanoremediation and Others -- 6 Future Research Needs -- 7 Summary -- References -- Lead Exposure and Oxidative Stress: A Systematic Review -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Sources and Types of Epidemiological Evidence -- 3 Lead-Induced Oxidative Stress in the General Population -- 4 Lead-Induced Oxidative Stress in Occupationally Exposed Populations -- 5 Types and Utility of Biomarkers -- 6 Conclusions -- 7 Summary -- Appendix 1: Search Strategy -- References -- Nanostructured Metal Oxides for Stoichiometric Degradation of Chemical Warfare Agents -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Nanostructured Oxides -- 2.1 Oxides of Alkaline Earth Metals -- 2.2 Aluminum Oxide -- 2.3 Zinc Oxide -- 2.4 Titanium Oxide -- 2.4.1 Zr4+ and Hf4+-Doped Titania -- 2.4.2 Ge4+ and In3+ Doped Titania -- 2.4.3 Titania, Iron and Manganese Mixed Oxides -- 2.5 Zero-Valent Iron and Iron Oxides -- 2.6 Zirconium Hydroxide -- 2.7 Manganese Oxide (MnO2) -- 2.8 Vanadium Oxide -- 2.9 Ce3+ and Ce4+ Oxides -- 3 Conclusions -- References -- Ecological Recovery Potential of Freshwater Organisms: Consequences for Environmental Risk Assessment of Chemicals -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Stressor Types, Case Studies and Recovery Estimates Covered by the Review -- 3 Variability in Recovery Times Among Taxonomic Groups -- 3.1 Algae -- 3.2 Zooplankton -- 3.3 Fish -- 3.4 Macro-invertebrates -- 3.4.1 Diptera -- 3.4.2 Ephemeroptera -- 3.4.3 Oligochaeta -- 3.4.4 Macro-crustacea -- 3.4.5 Plecoptera -- 3.4.6 Trichoptera -- 3.4.7 Heteroptera -- 3.4.8 Odonata -- 3.4.9 Coleoptera -- 3.4.10 Mollusca -- 3.5 Macrophytes -- 4 Contributions of Ecosystem Type, Landscape Characteristics and Community Processes -- 5 Variability in Recovery Times among Stressor Types. , 6 Comparison of Semi-field and Field Recovery Times -- 7 The Role of Effect Size in Recovery Time Estimation -- 8 Limitations for the Derivation of Recovery Times -- 9 Risk Assessment, Ecological Recovery and Legislation -- 10 Summary -- References -- Index.

Note: Pages:1 to 10 -- Pages:11 to 20 -- Pages:21 to 30 -- Pages:31 to 33.

Note: Intro -- Special Foreword -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Atmospheric Perfluorinated Acid Precursors: Chemistry, Occurrence, and Impacts -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Mechanisms of Atmospheric Formation of Perfluorinated Acids -- 2.1 Perfluorocarboxylic Acids -- 2.1.1 Mechanisms for Atmospheric Formation of Perfluoroacyl Halides -- 2.1.2 Mechanisms for Direct Atmospheric Formation of PFCAs -- 2.2 Perfluorosulfonic Acids (PFSAs) -- 3 Chemistry of Perfluorinated Acid (PFA) Precursors -- 3.1 Volatile Anesthetics -- 3.1.1 CF3 (CF2) x CHClBr -- 3.1.2 CF3 (CF2) x CHClOCHF 2 -- 3.2 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) -- 3.2.1 CF3 (CF2) x CHFCl -- 3.2.2 CF3 (CF2) x CHCl 2 -- 3.3 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, Non-telomer Based) -- 3.3.1 Saturated Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) -- 3.3.2 Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) -- 3.4 Fluorotelomer and Related Compounds -- 3.4.1 Perfluorinated Aldehyde (PFAL) Hydrates -- 3.4.2 Perfluorinated Aldehydes (PFALs) -- 3.4.3 Fluorotelomer Aldehydes (FTALs) -- 3.4.4 Odd Fluorotelomer Alcohols (oFTOHs) -- 3.4.5 Even Fluorotelomer Alcohols (FTOHs) -- 3.4.6 Fluorotelomer Olefins (FTOs) -- 3.4.7 Fluorotelomer Iodides (FTIs) -- 3.4.8 Fluorotelomer Acrylate (FTAc) -- 3.5 Perfluoroalkanesulfonamides -- 3.5.1 N -Alkyl-perfluoroalkanesulfonamides (NAFSA) -- 3.5.2 N -Alkyl-perfluoroalkanesulfamidoethanols (NAFSE) -- 4 Atmospheric Sources and Levels -- 4.1 Volatile Fluorinated Anesthetics -- 4.2 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) -- 4.2.1 Potential Sources to the Atmosphere -- 4.2.2 Atmospheric Concentrations -- 4.3 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, Non-telomer Based) -- 4.3.1 Saturated Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) -- 4.3.2 Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) -- 4.4 Fluorotelomer Compounds -- 4.4.1 Potential Sources to the Atmosphere -- 4.4.2 Atmospheric Concentrations -- 4.5 Perfluorosulfonamides -- 4.5.1 Potential Sources to the Atmosphere. , 4.5.2 Atmospheric Concentrations -- 5 Impact of Precursors on Environmental Perfluorinated Acid (PFA) Levels -- 5.1 Trifluoroacetic Acid (TFA) -- 5.2 Perfluorooctanesulfonic Acid (PFOS), Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorononanoic Acid (PFNA) -- 5.3 Long-Chained Perfluorocarboxylic Acids (PFCAs) -- 6 Summary -- References -- Isomer Profiling of Perfluorinated Substances as a Tool for Source Tracking: A Review of Early Findings and Future Applications -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Isomer Nomenclature -- 3 Historical and Current Manufacturing Sources of Perfluoroalkyl Isomers -- 4 Isomer-Specific Analytical Methodologies -- 4.1 Current Analytical Separation Methods -- 4.2 Analytical Quantification Bias -- 4.3 Strategies for Isomer Separation by LC--MS/MS -- 5 Influence of PhysicalChemical Properties on Environmental Fractionation of Perfluoroalkyl Isomers -- 6 Characterization of Perfluoroalkyl Isomer Profiles in the Environment -- 6.1 PFOA Isomer Profiles -- 6.2 Perfluoroalkyl Sulfonate and Sulfonamide Isomer Profiles -- 6.3 Perfluorocarboxylate Isomer Profiles Other than PFOA -- 7 Differences in Toxicity and Bioaccumulation of PFA Isomers -- 8 Summary -- References -- Biodegradation of Fluorinated Alkyl Substances -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Persistence of Perfluorinated Surfactants -- 3 Understanding the Complex Biodegradation of Fluorotelomer-based Chemicals -- 4 Biodegradation of N-Alkyl Perfluorooctane Sulfonamide Derivatives -- 5 The Role of Fluorinated Polymers -- 6 On the Way to Mineralization Biodegradation of Organic Molecules that Have Low Fluorine Content -- 7 Summary -- References -- Perfluorinated Substances in Human Food and Other Sources of Human Exposure -- 1 Introduction -- 2 PFCs in Edible Fish and Seafood -- 3 Contamination of Food -- 3.1 Indirect Contamination of PFCs in Food Items. , 3.2 Direct Contamination of PFCs in Commercial Food Items -- 4 PFCs in Drinking Water -- 5 Safety Limits and Tolerable Daily Intakes -- 6 Perfluorinated Compounds in House Dust and Air -- 7 Correlation Between PFCs -- 8 Outlook -- 9 Summary -- References -- Index.