Note: Intro -- In Memoriam: Otto Ludwig Lange (1927-2017) -- Contents -- List of Abbreviations -- Part I: Introduction to Harmful Algal Blooms and the GEOHAB Programme -- Chapter 1: Introduction to the Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms (GEOHAB) Synthesis -- References -- Chapter 2: Harmful Algal Blooms and the Importance of Understanding Their Ecology and Oceanography -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 What Are Harmful Algal Blooms? -- 2.3 How Are HABs Harmful? -- 2.4 Where Do HABs Occur? -- 2.5 Why Are HABs Expanding? -- 2.6 Why the Need for Advancing Knowledge of HAB Ecology and Oceanography? -- 2.7 Conclusions and the Role of GEOHAB -- References -- Chapter 3: Establishment, Goals, and Legacy of the Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms (GEOHAB) Programme -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 History of GEOHAB -- 3.3 HABs in Upwelling Systems -- 3.4 HABs in Eutrophic Systems -- 3.5 HABs in Stratified Systems -- 3.6 HABs in Fjords and Coastal Embayments -- 3.7 HABs in Benthic Systems -- 3.8 GEOHAB Targeted, Regional, and National Research -- 3.9 Cross-Cutting and Framework Activities -- 3.10 GEOHAB Legacies -- References -- Part II: Global Changes and Harmful Algal Blooms -- Chapter 4: Changing Land-, Sea-, and Airscapes: Sources of Nutrient Pollution Affecting Habitat Suitability for Harmful Algae -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Land-Based Nutrient Pollution -- 4.3 Changing Seascapes -- 4.4 Coastal Typology and Anthropogenic Changes in Water Flow: Nutrient Retention Effects -- 4.5 Changing Airscapes -- 4.6 Eutrophication Potential and Global HAB Distribution -- 4.7 Future Projections: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Scenarios -- 4.8 Future Projections: Global Ecosystem Modelling Approaches -- 4.9 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5: Harmful Algal Blooms in a Changing Ocean -- 5.1 Introduction. , 5.2 Direct Effects of Temperature on HABs -- 5.3 Direct Effects of Stratification on HABs -- 5.4 Altered Light Field Effects on HABs -- 5.5 Effects of Ocean Acidification on HABs -- 5.6 Effects of Nutrients on HABs -- 5.7 Grazer Effects on HABs -- 5.8 General Strategies to Accelerate Understanding of Climate Change Impacts on HABs -- References -- Part III: Adaptive Strategies and Harmful Algal Blooms -- Chapter 6: Nutrients and Harmful Algal Blooms: Dynamic Kinetics and Flexible Nutrition -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Limiting Nutrients -- 6.3 Optimal Nutrients -- 6.4 Dynamic Responses -- 6.5 Stoichiometry and Balancing Excess Nutrients -- 6.6 Mixotrophy -- 6.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7: Mixotrophy in Harmful Algal Blooms: By Whom, on Whom, When, Why, and What Next -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Mixotrophy Across the Spectrum of Nutrient Supply -- 7.3 Mixotrophs and Cellular Nutrient Stoichiometry -- 7.4 Mixotrophs and the Food Web -- 7.5 Inclusion of Mixotrophy in State-of-the-Art Ecosystem Modelling: The Rationale -- 7.6 Including Mixotrophy in State-of-the-Art Ecosystem Modelling: An Approach -- 7.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8: The Role of Life Cycle Characteristics in Harmful Algal Bloom Dynamics -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Dinoflagellates: Alexandrium fundyense and Pyrodinium bahamense -- 8.2.1 Life Cycle of Cyst-Forming Dinoflagellates -- 8.2.2 Bloom Dynamics -- 8.2.2.1 Major Study Areas -- 8.2.2.2 Cyst Distributions and Initiation of Planktonic Blooms -- 8.2.2.3 Bloom Development and Transport -- 8.2.2.4 Sexual Induction and Cyst Formation -- 8.3 Diatoms: Pseudo-nitzschia spp. -- 8.3.1 Life Cycle -- 8.3.2 Bloom Dynamics -- 8.3.3 Modelling of Life Cycle Transitions -- 8.4 Cyanobacteria: Nodularia spumigena -- 8.4.1 Life Cycle -- 8.4.2 Bloom Dynamics -- 8.4.3 Dispersal and Future Distribution -- 8.5 Synthesis and Recommendations. , References -- Part IV: Harmful Algal Blooms in Specific Habitats and Biomes -- Chapter 9: Key Questions and Recent Research Advances on Harmful Algal Blooms in Stratified Systems -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Key Questions 1: What Are the Turbulence Length Scales Relevant to Harmful Phytoplankton and the Formation of Thin Layers?... -- 9.3 Key Questions 2: What Are the Main Processes Controlling the Population Evolution of a Given Species, and How Does Their R... -- 9.3.1 Bloom Initiation -- 9.3.2 Bloom Maintenance -- 9.3.3 Bloom Decline and TL Erosion -- 9.4 Key Questions 3: How Can We Quantify Modifications in Turbulence by Phytoplankton Through Changes in the Viscosity of Its ... -- 9.5 Key Questions 4: What Nutritional Opportunities Do Thin Layers Provide to Phytoplankton, Especially to the Species Selecte... -- 9.6 Key Question 5: Are Allelopathy and ``Chemical Warfare´´ at Work In Situ Within TLs? -- 9.7 Conclusions and Next Steps -- References -- Chapter 10: Key Questions and Recent Research Advances on Harmful Algal Blooms in Fjords and Coastal Embayments -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Key Question 1: Are There Definable Adaptive Strategies for HAB Species in Confined and Semi-confined Systems? -- 10.3 Key Question 2: What Is the Importance of Life History Transitions and Cyst Distribution in Bloom Initiation and Maintena... -- 10.4 Key Question 3: How Do Physical Dispersion and Aggregation Processes Within a Semi-confined Basin Affect HAB Growth and D... -- 10.5 Key Question 4: What Is the Relative Contribution of Nutrient Flux and Supply Ratios to HAB Dynamics in Eutrophic Versus ... -- 10.6 Key Question 5: What Is the Importance of Spatial Scale and Retention Time in the Expression and Effects of Allelochemica... -- 10.7 Key Question 6: How Do Embayment Morphology, Bathymetry and Hydrodynamics Affect HAB Dynamics?. , 10.8 Key Question 7: Are the Effects of Human Activities (e.g. Aquaculture) and Global Climate Change on HAB Dynamics Magnifie... -- 10.9 Future Research Priorities -- References -- Chapter 11: Key Questions and Recent Research Advances on Harmful Algal Blooms in Eastern Boundary Upwelling Systems -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Key Question 1: Are There Definable Adaptive Strategies that Characterize HAB Species in Upwelling Systems? -- 11.3 Key Question 2: What Seeding Strategies Persist Within Upwelling Regions and Are They Consistent Among Regions? -- 11.4 Key Question 3: How Do Small-Scale Physical Processes Affect HAB Growth and Dispersion in Upwelling Systems? -- 11.5 Key Question 4: How Do Nutrient Supply Type and Ratios Determine HAB Population Dynamics in Upwelling Systems? -- 11.6 Key Question 5: What Is the Role of Genetic Predisposition Versus Environmental Conditions in Toxin Production in Differe... -- 11.7 Key Question 6: How Does Coastal Morphology and Bathymetry Affect HAB Dynamics in Upwelling Systems? -- 11.8 Key Question 7: What Is the Relative Importance of Cross-Shelf and Along-Shore Advection for HABs in Different Upwelling ... -- 11.9 Key Question 8: Are Climate Indicators Predictive of HAB Events in Upwelling Systems? -- 11.10 HAB Prediction -- 11.11 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 12: Key Questions and Recent Research Advances on Harmful Algal Blooms in Relation to Nutrients and Eutrophication -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Key Question 1: Are There Clusters or Specific Types of HAB Species that Are Indicative of Global HAB Increases? -- 12.3 Key Question 2: To What Extent Do Residence Time and Other Physical Processes Impact the Relationship Between Nutrient Lo... -- 12.4 Key Question 3: How Do Feedbacks and Interactions Between Nutrients and the Planktonic, Microbial Food Web Impact HABs an. , 12.5 Key Question 4.0: Do Anthropogenic Alterations of the Food Web, Including Overfishing and Aquaculture Activities, Synergi... -- 12.6 Key Question 5: How Do Anthropogenic Changes in Land Use, Agricultural Use of Fertilizer, NOx Emissions from Vehicles, an... -- 12.7 Key Question 6: How Do the Stoichiometry and Quality of These Nutrient Sources Regulate the Biological Response, Includin... -- 12.8 Key Question 7: Do Climate Change and Climate Variability Have Impacts on Ecosystems that Augment the Impacts of Eutrophi... -- 12.9 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 13: Key Questions and Recent Research Advances on Harmful Algal Blooms in Benthic Systems -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Key Question 1: What Is the Biogeography and Biodiversity of BHABs and the Relationships Among Distributions of BHAB Spec... -- 13.2.1 Gambierdiscus -- 13.2.2 Ostreopsis -- 13.3 Key Question 2: What Are the Relationships Between Eutrophication and Nutrient Transformation Pathways and BHAB Populatio... -- 13.3.1 Gambierdiscus -- 13.3.2 Ostreopsis -- 13.4 Key Question 3: Are There Particular Characteristics and Adaptations of BHAB Species That Determine When and Where They O... -- 13.4.1 Gambierdiscus -- 13.4.2 Ostreopsis -- 13.5 Key Question 4: Are There Mechanisms Underlying BHAB Population and Community Dynamics Across Ecosystem Types That Are Re... -- 13.6 Key Question 5: What New Observation and Modelling Approaches Are Available to Help in the Detection and Prediction of BH... -- 13.7 BHAB Toxins -- 13.7.1 Gambierdiscus -- 13.7.2 Ostreopsis -- 13.8 Impacts on Human Health -- 13.8.1 Health Disorders Associated with Gambierdiscus Outbreaks -- 13.8.2 Health Disorders Associated with Ostreopsis Outbreaks -- 13.9 Summary and Recommendations -- References -- Part V: Spotlight on Harmful Algal Blooms in Asia -- Chapter 14: Overview of Harmful Algal Blooms in Asia. , 14.1 Introduction.