Note: Intro -- Preface -- Contents -- Exploration Geophysics -- Distortion of Local Magnetovariational Anomalies by Effect of Regional Structures -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods and Modeling Results -- 3 Conclusions -- References -- The Features of Dead Band AMT Signal in Chukotka Region -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods -- 3 The Data Analysis and Results -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- Role of Hall Effect in Magnetotelluric Sounding -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Polarization Analysis Method -- 3 A Numerical Model of the Hall Effect in MTS Data -- 4 The Results of Experiment to Detect the Hall Effect in Real MTS Data -- 5 Conclusion -- References -- About Measurement of Vertical Component of Electric Field During Magnetotelluric Sounding -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Results of Numerical Calculations of Potentials of  Uz and  UCED -- 3 The Application of CED in the Arctic Region -- 4 Conclusion -- References -- Statistical Properties of the Geomagnetic Field Variations and Geomagnetically Induced Currents -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Data and Pre-processing -- 3 Diurnal Variation of Geomagnetic Disturbances and GIC -- 4 Correlations Between GIC and Magnetic Field Variability -- 5 Regression Model of GIC -- 6 Statistical Distributions of GIC and Geomagnetic Variations -- 7 Conclusions -- References -- Paleomagnetism, Rock Magnetism and Geomagnetism -- Magnetostratigraphy and Biostratigraphy of the Valanginian in the Crimean Mountains -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Characteristics of Sections -- 2.1 East Crimea -- 2.2 Southwestern Crimea -- 3 Methods -- 4 Results -- 4.1 Micropaleontologic Data -- 4.2 Magnetostratigraphy -- 5 Discussion -- 5.1 East Crimea -- 5.2 Southwest Crimea -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Magnetostratigraphy of the Maastrichtian from Volga Right Bank Area Near Saratov (Lower Volga Region) -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Sampling and Methods. , 2.1 Field Works and Characteristics of the Sections -- 2.2 Magnetic Mineralogy Analysis -- 3 Results -- 3.1 Rock Magnetic and Magnetomineralogical Investigations -- 3.2 Paleomagnetic Investigations -- 4 Magnetostratigraphic Correlation -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- The First Paleomagnetic Data on Lower Carboniferous Volcanics of the Central Magnitogorsk Zone in the South Urals -- References -- Paleomagnetism and Petromagnetism of Sedimentary Rocks of the Zhuravlevka-Amur Terrane (Junction Zone Between the Sikhote-Alin and Mongol-Okhotsk Orogenic Belts) -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods -- 3 Petromagnetic Results -- 4 Paleomagnetic Results -- 4.1 Gorinskaya Formation -- 4.2 Pionerskaya Formation -- 5 Conclusion -- References -- Analysis of Strong-Field Hysteresis in High Coercivity Magnetic Minerals -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Samples and Experimental Techniques -- 3 Results and Discussion -- 3.1 Microscopy and X-Ray Studies -- 3.2 Magnetic Mineralogy -- 3.3 High-Field Hysteresis -- 4 Conclusion -- References -- Preliminary Data on the Magnetic Properties of Fallow Soils (Zelenodolsky District, Republic of Tatarstan) -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Materials and Methods -- 3 Results and Discussions -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- Influence of the Choice of a Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale on Results of the Geochronological and Geohistorical Analysis of the Marine Magnetic Anomalies -- 1 Introduction -- 2 History -- 3 The Method and the Data -- 4 The Results -- 5 Conclusion -- References -- Preliminary Estimation of the Non-dipole Part of the Geomagnetic Field in the Quaternary Period Based on the Investigation of Marine Magnetic Anomalies on the Carlsberg Ridge -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Possible Approaches to the Inclination Anomaly Analysis -- 3 Data -- 4 Method -- 5 Results -- References. , Simple Planetary Convection and Magnetism Estimations via Scaling and Observations -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Scaling, Criticality and Turbulence for Convection -- 3 Critical Convection Estimations for the Terrestrial Planets -- 4 Observed Dynamo AMF (Arithmetic Mean Magnetic Field) -- 5 RMS Magnetic Field (RMF) from Scaling Laws -- 6 Discussion and Conclusions -- References -- Seismology -- Atlas of Aftershock Sequences of Strong Earthquakes -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Inverse Problem of the Aftershocks Physics -- 3 Atlas of Aftershocks -- 4 Discussion -- 5 Conclusion -- References -- On the Spatial-Temporal Structure of Aftershock Sequences -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Data and Method -- 3 Analysis Results -- 4 Possible Interpretation -- References -- Possible Short-Term Ionospheric Precursors of Strong Crustal Earthquakes -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Procedure of Data Analysis -- 3 Results and Discussions -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- Seismicity and Crustal Structure of the Southern Crimea and Adjacent Northern Black Sea from Local Seismic Tomography -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Seismicity of the Crimea Seismic Zone and Seismic Data -- 3 Tomographic Inversion Method -- 4 Results and Interpretation -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- Anisotropy of the Uppermost Mantle in Europe as Obtained from Surface Wave Data -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Method -- 3 Data -- 4 Results -- 5 Discussion and Conclusions -- References -- Heterogeneities of the Earth's Inner Core Boundary from Differential Measurements of PKiKP and PcP Seismic Phases -- 1 Motivation -- 2 Data and Measurements -- 3 Results and Discussion -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- Superdeep Drilling and Its Impact on the Seismic Models of the Fennoscandian Shield -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Results and Discussion -- 3 Conclusion -- References. , Some Remarks on the Seismometric Experiments Taking into Account the Thickness of the Frozen Layer Soil -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Monitoring of the Frozen Layer -- 3 Freezemeter -- 4 Technique of Experiment -- 5 Conclusion -- References -- PEMSDAS-Portable Expandable Modular Seismic Data Acquisition System -- 1 Introduction -- 2 System Development -- 3 Conclusion -- References -- Solar-Terrestrial Physics -- Influence of Different Ionospheric Disturbances on the GPS Scintillations at High Latitudes -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Data -- 3 Data Analyses -- 4 Conclusion -- References -- The Study of Auroral Oval Position Changes in Terms of Moving of the Earth's Magnetic Pole -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Features of Changes in the Components of the Induction Vector of the Earth's Magnetic Field at the Heights of the Ionospheric Layers -- 3 Discussion and Conclusions -- References -- Geomagnetic and Telluric Field Variability as a Driver of Geomagnetically Induced Currents -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Geomagnetic, Magnetotelluric and GIC Data -- 2.1 Telluric Field Calculations E -- 3 Magnetic Storm 2012, Nov. 12-14 -- 4 Pi3 Pulsations During the Magnetic Storm on 2013, June 29 -- 5 Discussion and Conclusion -- References -- Pitch-Angle Diffusion of Energetic Protons upon Their Interaction with EMIC Waves: Comparison of Calculation Results with THEMIS and NOAA/POES Data -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Satellite Data -- 3 The Formula for the Pitch-Angle Diffusion Coefficient -- 4 The Event of 05 August 2010 (Case 1) -- 5 The Event of 13 October 2010 (Case 2) -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Sunset Variations of the Bottom Edge of the Ionosphere During the Proton Precipitations on and After 29 September, 1989 -- 1 Introduction -- 2 A Problem and Its Solution -- 3 Discussion and Conclusions -- References. , Geomagnetic Disturbances with Sudden and Gradual Commencements in 1869-1954 According to Observatory Data and Catalogs of Storms -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Data and Method -- 3 Results -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- Manifestation and Possible Reasons of 60-Year Climatic Cycle in Correlation Links Between Solar Activity and Lower Atmosphere Circulation -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Solar Activity Influences on Troposphere Pressure and Epochs of Large-Scale Circulation -- 3 Stratospheric Polar Vortex and Its Possible Part in Formation of Solar Activity (GCR) Effects on Troposphere Pressure -- 4 Variations of Solar Irradiance as a Possible Reason for Polar Vortex Evolution -- 5 Conclusions -- References.

Note: Intro -- Phase Transitions in Combinatorial Optimization Problems Basics, Algorithms and Statistical Mechanics -- Contents -- Preface -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Two examples of combinatorial optimization -- 1.2 Why study combinatorial optimization using statistical physics? -- 1.3 Textbooks -- Bibliography -- 2 Algorithms -- 2.1 Pidgin Algol -- 2.2 Iteration and recursion -- 2.3 Divide-and-conquer -- 2.4 Dynamic programming -- 2.5 Backtracking -- Bibliography -- 3 Introduction to graphs -- 3.1 Basic concepts and graph problems -- 3.1.1 The bridges of Königsberg and Eulerian graphs -- 3.1.2 Hamiltonian graphs -- 3.1.3 Minimum spanning trees -- 3.1.4 Edge covers and vertex covers -- 3.1.5 The graph coloring problem -- 3.1.6 Matchings -- 3.2 Basic graph algorithms -- 3.2.1 Depth-first and breadth-first search -- 3.2.2 Strongly connected component -- 3.2.3 Minimum spanning tree -- 3.3 Random graphs -- 3.3.1 Two ensembles -- 3.3.2 Evolution of graphs -- 3.3.3 Finite-connectivity graphs: The case p = c/N -- 3.3.4 The phase transition: Emergence of a giant component -- 3.3.5 The emergence of a giant q-core -- Bibliography -- 4 Introduction to complexity theory -- 4.1 Turing machines -- 4.2 Church's thesis -- 4.3 Languages -- 4.4 The halting problem -- 4.5 Class P -- 4.6 Class NP -- 4.7 Definition of NP-completeness -- 4.8 NP-complete problems -- 4.8.1 Proving NP-completeness -- 4.8.2 3-SAT -- 4.8.3 Vertex cover -- 4.9 Worst-case vs. typical-case complexity -- Bibliography -- 5 Statistical mechanics of the Ising model -- 5.1 Phase transitions -- 5.2 Some general notes on statistical mechanics -- 5.2.1 The probability distribution for microscopic configurations -- 5.2.2 Statistical meaning of the partition function -- 5.2.3 Thermodynamic limit -- 5.3 The Curie-Weiss model of a ferromagnet -- 5.4 The Ising model on a random graph -- 5.4.1 The model. , 5.4.2 Some expectations -- 5.4.3 The replica approach -- 5.4.4 The Bethe-Peierls approach -- Bibliography -- 6 Algorithms and numerical results for vertex covers -- 6.1 Definitions -- 6.2 Heuristic algorithms -- 6.3 Branch-and-bound algorithm -- 6.4 Results: Covering random graphs -- 6.5 The leaf-removal algorithm -- 6.6 Monte Carlo simulations -- 6.6.1 The hard-core lattice gas -- 6.6.2 Markov chains -- 6.6.3 Monte Carlo for hard-core gases -- 6.6.4 Parallel tempering -- 6.7 Backbone -- 6.8 Clustering of minimum vertex covers -- Bibliography -- 7 Statistical mechanics of vertex covers on a random graph -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 The first-moment bound -- 7.3 The hard-core lattice gas -- 7.4 Replica approach -- 7.4.1 The replicated partition function -- 7.4.2 Replica-symmetric solution -- 7.4.3 Beyond replica symmetry -- Bibliography -- 8 The dynamics of vertex-cover algorithms -- 8.1 The typical-case solution time of a complete algorithm -- 8.1.1 The algorithm -- 8.1.2 Some numerical observations -- 8.1.3 The first descent into the tree -- 8.1.4 The backtracking time -- 8.1.5 The dynamical phase diagram of branch-and-bound algorithms -- 8.2 The dynamics of generalized leaf-removal algorithms -- 8.2.1 The algorithm -- 8.2.2 Rate equations for the degree distribution -- 8.2.3 Gazmuri's algorithm -- 8.2.4 Generalized leaf removal -- 8.3 Random restart algorithms -- Bibliography -- 9 Towards new, statistical-mechanics motivated algorithms -- 9.1 The cavity graph -- 9.2 Warning propagation -- 9.2.1 Back to the replica results -- 9.3 Belief propagation -- 9.4 Survey propagation -- 9.5 Numerical experiments on random graphs -- Bibliography -- 10 The satisfiability problem -- 10.1 SAT algorithms -- 10.1.1 2-SAT algorithms -- 10.1.2 Complete algorithms for K-SAT -- 10.1.3 Stochastic algorithms -- 10.2 Phase transitions in random K-SAT. , 10.2.1 Numerical results -- 10.2.2 Rigorous mathematical results -- 10.2.3 Statistical-mechanics results -- 10.3 Typical-case dynamics of Random WalkSAT -- 10.3.1 Numerical results -- 10.3.2 An analytical approximation scheme for random K-SAT -- 10.4 Message-passing algorithms for SAT -- 10.4.1 Factor graphs and cavities -- 10.4.2 Warning propagation -- 10.4.3 Survey propagation -- Bibliography -- 11 Optimization problems in physics -- 11.1 Monte Carlo optimization -- 11.1.1 Simulated annealing -- 11.1.2 Cluster algorithms -- 11.1.3 Biased sampling -- 11.2 Hysteric optimization -- 11.3 Genetic algorithms -- 11.4 Shortest paths and polymers in random media -- 11.5 Maximum flows and random-field systems -- 11.6 Submodular functions and free energy of Potts model -- 11.7 Matchings and spin glasses -- Bibliography -- Index.

Note: Cover -- Bathroom Battlegrounds -- Title -- Copyright -- Dedication -- Contents -- List of Illustrations -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- 1. Politicizing the Potty -- 2. Professionalizing Plumbing -- 3. Regulating Restrooms -- 4. Working against the Washroom -- 5. Leveraging the Loo -- 6. Transforming the Toilet -- Conclusion -- Appendix: Data and Methodology -- Notes -- Bibliography -- Index.

Note: Intro -- New Optimization Algorithms in Physics -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- 1 Introduction -- Part I Applications in Physics -- 2 Cluster Monte Carlo Algorithms -- 2.1 Detailed Balance and a priori Probabilities -- 2.2 The Wolff Cluster Algorithm for the Ising Model -- 2.3 Cluster Algorithm for Hard Spheres and Related Systems -- 2.4 Applications -- 2.4.1 Phase Separation in Binary Mixtures -- 2.4.2 Polydisperse Mixtures -- 2.4.3 Monomer-Dimer Problem -- 2.5 Limitations and Extensions -- References -- 3 Probing Spin Glasses with Heuristic Optimization Algorithms -- 3.1 Spin Glasses -- 3.1.1 Motivations -- 3.1.2 The Ising Model -- 3.1.3 Models of Spin Glasses -- 3.1.4 Some Challenges -- 3.2 Some Heuristic Algorithms -- 3.2.1 General Issues -- 3.2.2 Variable Depth Search -- 3.2.3 Genetic Renormalization Algorithm -- 3.3 A Survey of Physics Results -- 3.3.1 Convergence of the Ground-state Energy Density -- 3.3.2 Domain Walls -- 3.3.3 Clustering of Ground States -- 3.3.4 Low-energy Excitations -- 3.3.5 Phase Diagram -- 3.4 Outlook -- References -- 4 Computing Exact Ground States of Hard Ising Spin Glass Problems by Branch-and-cut -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Ground States and Maximum Cuts -- 4.3 A General Scheme for Solving Hard Max-cut Problems -- 4.4 Linear Programming Relaxations of Max-cut -- 4.5 Branch-and-cut -- 4.6 Results of Exact Ground-state Computations -- 4.7 Advantages of Branch-and-cut -- 4.8 Challenges for the Years to Come -- References -- 5 Counting States and Counting Operations -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Physical Questions about Ground States -- 5.2.1 Homogeneous Models -- 5.2.2 Magnets with Frozen Disorder -- 5.3 Finding Low-energy Configurations -- 5.3.1 Physically Motivated Approaches -- 5.3.2 Combinatorial Optimization -- 5.3.3 Ground-state Algorithm for the RFIM -- 5.4 The Energy Landscape: Degeneracy and Barriers. , 5.5 Counting States -- 5.5.1 Ground-state Configuration Degeneracy -- 5.5.2 Thermodynamic State -- 5.5.3 Numerical Studies of Zero-temperature States -- 5.6 Running Times for Optimization Algorithms -- 5.6.1 Running Times and Evolution of the Heights -- 5.6.2 Heuristic Derivation of Running Times -- 5.7 Further Directions -- References -- 6 Computing the Potts Free Energy and Submodular Functions -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 The Potts Model -- 6.2.1 Definition of the Potts Model -- 6.2.2 Some Results for Non-random Models -- 6.2.3 The Ferromagnetic Random Bond Potts Model -- 6.2.4 High Temperature Development -- 6.2.5 Limit of an Infinite Number of States -- 6.3 Basics on the Minimization of Submodular Functions -- 6.3.1 Definition of Submodular Functions -- 6.3.2 A Simple Characterization -- 6.3.3 Examples -- 6.3.4 Minimization of Submodular Function -- 6.4 Free Energy of the Potts Model in the Infinite q-Limit -- 6.4.1 The Method -- 6.4.2 The Auxiliary Problem -- 6.4.3 The Max-flow Problem: the Goldberg and Tarjan Algorithm -- 6.4.4 About the Structure of the Optimal Sets -- 6.5 Implementation and Evaluation -- 6.5.1 Implementation -- 6.5.2 Example of Application -- 6.5.3 Evaluation of the CPU Time -- 6.5.4 Memory Requirement -- 6.5.5 Various Possible Improvements -- 6.6 Conclusion -- References -- Part II Phase Transitions in Combinatorial Optimization Problems -- 7 The Random 3-satisfiability Problem: From the Phase Transition to the Efficient Generation of Hard, but Satisfiable Problem Instances -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Random 3-SAT and the SAT/UNSAT Transition -- 7.2.1 Numerical Results -- 7.2.2 Using Statistical Mechanics -- 7.3 Satisfiable Random 3-SAT Instances -- 7.3.1 The Naive Generator -- 7.3.2 Unbiased Generators -- 7.4 Conclusion -- References -- 8 Analysis of Backtracking Procedures for Random Decision Problems -- 8.1 Introduction. , 8.2 Phase Diagram, Search Trajectories and the Easy SAT Phase -- 8.2.1 Overview of Concepts Useful to DPLL Analysis -- 8.2.2 Clause Populations: Flows, Averages and Fluctuations -- 8.2.3 Average-case Analysis in the Absence of Backtracking -- 8.2.4 Occurrence of Contradictions and Polynomial SAT Phase -- 8.3 Analysis of the Search Tree Growth in the UNSAT Phase -- 8.3.1 Numerical Experiments -- 8.3.2 Parallel Growth Process and Markovian Evolution Matrix -- 8.3.3 Generating Function and Large-size Scaling -- 8.3.4 Interpretation in Terms of Growth Process -- 8.4 Hard SAT Phase: Average Case and Fluctuations -- 8.4.1 Mixed Branch and Tree Trajectories -- 8.4.2 Distribution of Running Times -- 8.4.3 Large Deviation Analysis of the First Branch in the Tree -- 8.5 The Random Graph Coloring Problem -- 8.5.1 Description of DPLL Algorithm for Coloring -- 8.5.2 Coloring in the Absence of Backtracking -- 8.5.3 Coloring in the Presence of Massive Backtracking -- 8.6 Conclusions -- References -- 9 New Iterative Algorithms for Hard Combinatorial Problems -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Combinatorial Decision Problems, K-SAT and the Factor Graph Representation -- 9.2.1 Random K-SAT -- 9.3 Growth Process Algorithm: Probabilities, Messages and Their Statistics -- 9.4 Traditional Message-passing Algorithm: Belief Propagation as Simple Cavity Equations -- 9.5 Survey Propagation Equations -- 9.6 Decimating Variables According to Their Statistical Bias -- 9.7 Conclusions and Perspectives -- References -- Part III New Heuristics and Interdisciplinary Applications -- 10 Hysteretic Optimization -- 10.1 Hysteretic Optimization for Ising Spin Glasses -- 10.2 Generalization to Other Optimization Problems -- 10.3 Application to the Traveling Salesman Problem -- 10.4 Outlook -- References -- 11 Extremal Optimization -- 11.1 Emerging Optimality -- 11.2 Extremal Optimization. , 11.2.1 Basic Notions -- 11.2.2 EO Algorithm -- 11.2.3 Extremal Selection -- 11.2.4 Rank Ordering -- 11.2.5 Defining Fitness -- 11.2.6 Distinguishing EO from other Heuristics -- 11.2.7 Implementing EO -- 11.3 Numerical Results for EO -- 11.3.1 Early Results -- 11.3.2 Applications of EO by Others -- 11.3.3 Large-scale Simulations of Spin Glasses -- 11.4 Theoretical Investigations -- References -- 12 Sequence Alignments -- 12.1 Molecular Biology -- 12.2 Alignments and Alignment Algorithms -- 12.3 Low-probability Tail of Alignment Scores -- References -- 13 Protein Folding in Silico - the Quest for Better Algorithms -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Energy Landscape Paving -- 13.3 Beyond Global Optimization -- 13.3.1 Parallel Tempering -- 13.3.2 Multicanonical Sampling and Other Generalized-ensemble Techniques -- 13.4 Results -- 13.4.1 Helix Formation and Folding -- 13.4.2 Structure Predictions of Small Proteins -- 13.5 Conclusion -- References -- Index.