Note: Cover -- The Chemistry of Evolution -- Acknowledgements -- Preface -- Contents -- The Evolution of Earth-The Geochemical Partner of the Global Ecosystem (5 Billion Years of History) -- Introduction -- The Formation of the Atomic Elements: Abundances -- Earth's Physical Nature: Temperature and Pressure -- Earth's Atmosphere and Its Composition -- The Initial Formation of Minerals -- The Reforming of Solids from Melts: Minority Solids -- The Settling Down of Earth's Physical Nature -- The Initial Formation of the Sea and Its Contents -- Detailed Composition of the Original Sea: Availability -- Geological Periods - Chemical and Fossil Records -- Fissures in the Surface and Impacts of Meteorites -- The Geochemical Effects of Oxygen -- Conclusion -- Further Reading -- Basic Chemistry of the Ecosystem -- Introduction* -- Atoms and The Periodic Table -- Inorganic Chemistry -- Nature of Inorganic Chemical Compounds: Groups 1 to 3 and 12 to 17 -- The Nature of Transition Metal Compounds: Groups 4 to 11 -- Variable Combining Ratios and Spin States -- Important Heavy Elements -- Availability -- Non-Equilibrated Inorganic Systems: Barriers to Change -- Non-Equilibrium Inorganic Systems: Energy Storage -- Reactions and Catalysis by Inorganic Environmental Compounds, Especially Sulfides -- Summary of Inorganic Compounds Related to the Global Ecosystem -- Organic Chemistry -- Introduction to Organic Compounds of Ecological Relevance -- Stability and Reactivity of Organic Chemicals -- Stereochemistry -- The Importance of Temperature and Light: Rates of Organic Reactions -- Bringing Inorganic and Organic Chemistry Together -- Introduction -- Complex Formation: Selectivity -- Matching Redox Potentials of Inorganic and Organic Chemicals -- Electron and Proton Transfer -- The Importance of Rates of Exchange -- Selective Action of Metal Ion Complexes in Catalysis. , The Special Nature of Hydrogen -- Summary of the Basic Chemistry Relevant to Our Global Ecosystem -- Further Reading -- Energy, Order and Disorder, and Organised Systems -- Introduction -- Energy -- Order and Disorder: Equilibrium -- Some Steady States and Organisation -- Radiation Energy: Calculating its Disorder and Amount of Flow -- Optimal Rates of Energy Conversion and Optimal Retention of Energy in Cyclic Steady States: Content of a System -- Shape of Organised Systems and Energy: Maintained Form -- Evolution of a System going away from Equilibrium -- Form and Information: Multiple Component Systems -- Organisation and Compartments -- Organisation Messengers Feedback and Codes -- Energy Sources and Controlled Distribution of Energy -- Information Defined -- Cell Organisation, Equilibrium and Kinetic Constraints -- Informed Cellular Systems -- Ways of Looking at Ecological Chemical Systems: Summary -- A Note on Equilibrium Thermodynamics and Equilibrium Constants -- Further Reading -- Outline of Biological Chemical Principles: Components, Pathways and Controls -- Introduction -- Organisms: Their Classification as Thermodynamic Chemotypes -- Organisms: Their Generalised Element Content -- The Functional Value of the Elements in Organisms: Introduction to Biological Compounds -- Non-Metal Chemistry and its Basic Biological Pathways: Coding -- Informed Systems of Organic Molecules -- Pathways and Efficiency -- Structures and Maintained Flow: Containment -- The Selection of Coded Molecules: DNA(RNA) -- RNA and the Possible RNA World -- Proteins: Folding, Catalysts and Transcription Factors -- Proteins: Biological Machines in Water -- Proteins in Membranes -- Summary of Non-Metal Functions in Cells -- Why were Metal Ions Required? -- Combining Metal and Non-Metal Chemistry: Structures and Activities -- The Biological Properties of Hydrogen. , Cell Organisation and Constraints: Equilibria -- Kinetic Controls and Networks and their Energetics -- Summary -- The Magnitudes of Equilibrium Constraints in Cell Systems -- Equilibrium Redox Potential Controls -- Molecular Machines - Efficiency and Effectiveness -- References to Appendix 4c -- Further Reading -- First Steps in Evolution of Prokaryotes: Anaerobic Chemotypes Four to Three Billion Years Ago -- Introduction -- First Steps: The Evolution of Prokaryotes: General Considerations of the Origins of Anaerobes -- The Two Classes of Recognised Early Prokaryotes -- The Introduction of Coenzymes: Optimalising Basic H, C, N, O, P Distribution -- Primitive Metal Reaction Centres -- Metal/Organic Cofactors -- The Use of Light to Full Advantage -- Manganese in Cells/Oxygen Evolution -- The Molybdenum Cofactor, Moco -- Early Uses of Zinc, Calcium, Vanadium and Sodium -- Summary of Anaerobic Prokaryote Metabolism -- Energy Flow in Anaerobes -- The Polymers in Primitive Cells -- Gene Responses in Prokaryotes -- Satellite DNA: Plasmids -- Prokaryote Controls -- Internal Flows and General Movement: Sensing and Searching Chemotaxis -- Conclusion: Anaerobic Chemotypes and their Development -- Further Reading -- The Evolution of Protoaerobic and Aerobic Prokaryote Chemotypes (Three to Two Billion Years Ago) -- Introduction -- The Beginning of an Aerobic Environment: Protoaerobic Bacteria -- Protection of the Cytoplasm of Protoaerobes -- Reduction of Environmental Oxidised Compounds of Non-Metals -- The Employment of Metal Ions in Protoaerobes and the Special Cases of Molybdenum and Vanadium -- The Direct Use of Oxygen: Aerobes -- The Handling of Metals by Aerobes -- Cytoplasmic and Membrane Organisation of Proteins -- The Need for Extra Compartments -- The Periplasmic Space and Oxidative Metabolism. , Novel Forms of Control and Organisation: New Genetic Features of Aerobes -- Summary of Prokaryote Development -- Further Reading -- Unicellular Eukaryotes Chemotypes (About One and a Half Billion Years Ago?) -- Introduction -- Plant, Animal and Fungal Eukaryotes and Interactions between them -- Connections between Eukaryotes, their Compartments and Prokaryotes -- The Organelles of Eukaryotes -- The uses of Other Compartments: Further Separate Activities -- Reproduction, Growth and Form -- The Threat of Dioxygen : The Chemistry of Protection -- Additional Distributions of Elements in Unicellular Eukaryote Compartments: the Eukaryote Metallome and the Advantages of Compartmentalised Oxygen Metabolism -- The Proteome and the Metabolome -- The Proteins for Metal Ions in Eukaryotes -- Messengers in Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- The Crucial Nature of the Calcium Ion -- Minerals in Unicellular Plants and Animals and their Deposition -- Gene Development in Eukaryotes -- Mutual Dependence of Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes -- Further Reading -- Multi-Cellular Eukaryote Chemotypes (From One Billion Year Ago) -- Introduction -- The Morphological Nature of Multi-Cellular Eukaryotes -- The Evolution of Multi-Cellular Plants -- The Evolution of Multi-Cellular Fungi -- The Evolution of Multi-Cellular Animals -- Diversity within the Major Chemotypes -- Growth of Plants and Animals from Single Cells -- The General Chemical Changes in the Ecosystem Some one Billion Years Ago -- The Chemical Changes of the Environment -- Chemical Changes in Whole Multi-Cellular Organisms -- Novel Proteins Associated with Multi-Cellular Organisms -- New Functional uses of Elements: General Outline -- The Use of Elements in Compartments and in Signalling -- Growth and Differentiation -- The Production of Chemical Messengers between Cells in Organs -- Connective Tissues. , A Further Note on Calcium -- Light Switches in Plants and Animals -- The Protection Systems of Plants and Animals -- Changes in Genetic Structure -- Degradation Activity and Apoptosis -- Conclusion -- Further Reading -- The Evolution of Chemotypes with Nerves and a Brain (0.5 Billion Years Ago to Today) -- Introduction -- Senses -- The Development of Nerves -- The Brain -- The Physical Evolution of the Brain -- The Chemical Element Composition of the Brain -- The Brain Development as an Information Store: The Human Phenotype -- A Note on Animal Genes and Morphology -- The Biological Chemotypes of the Ecosystem: A Summary -- The Relationship between Plants, Fungi and Bacteria: A Summary -- The Relationship between Plants and Animals -- Energised Inorganic Elements and their Uses by the End of Biological Evolution -- The Direction of Biological Evolution -- Further Reading -- Evolution due to Mankind: A Completely Novel Chemotype (Less than One Hundred Thousand Years Ago) -- Introduction -- The Nature of Homo Sapiens -- The Evolution of Human Beings from 100,000 Years Ago -- The Coming of Science -- Mankind and the Detailed Use of Chemical Elements -- Mankind, Energy and External Machines -- Transport -- Human Message Systems -- Organisation and Mankind -- The Development of Self-Consciousness -- Human Genes -- Summary -- Note on Creation and Intelligent Design: Mankind's Inventions -- A Note on General Culture -- Further Reading -- Conclusion: The Inevitable Factors in Evolution -- Introduction -- The Darwinian Approach to Evolution -- Genes and Darwin's Proposals -- The General Thermodynamic View of Ecosystem Evolution in this Book -- The Chemical Sequence of the Environment -- Chemicals and their Changes in Organisms: Chemotypes -- The Continuous Gain in Use of Energy and its Degradation -- The Changing Use of Space -- The Changes in Organisation. , Symbiosis: A Form of Compartmental Collaboration.

Note: Ebook , Chapter 1: An Outline of the History of the University of Oxford with Reference to its Chemistry School-- Chapter 2: From Alchemy to Air Pumps: the Foundation of Oxford Chemistry to 1700-- Chapter 3: The Eighteenth Century: Chemistry Allied to Anatomy-- Chapter 4: Chemistry Comes of Age: the 19th Century-- Chapter 5: Research as the Thing: Oxford Chemistry 1912-1939-- Chapter 6: Interlude: Chemists at War-- Chapter 7: Recent Times 1945-2005: a School of World Renown.

Note: Cover -- The Chemistry of Evolution -- Acknowledgements -- Preface -- Contents -- The Evolution of Earth-The Geochemical Partner of the Global Ecosystem (5 Billion Years of History) -- Introduction -- The Formation of the Atomic Elements: Abundances -- Earth's Physical Nature: Temperature and Pressure -- Earth's Atmosphere and Its Composition -- The Initial Formation of Minerals -- The Reforming of Solids from Melts: Minority Solids -- The Settling Down of Earth's Physical Nature -- The Initial Formation of the Sea and Its Contents -- Detailed Composition of the Original Sea: Availability -- Geological Periods - Chemical and Fossil Records -- Fissures in the Surface and Impacts of Meteorites -- The Geochemical Effects of Oxygen -- Conclusion -- Further Reading -- Basic Chemistry of the Ecosystem -- Introduction* -- Atoms and The Periodic Table -- Inorganic Chemistry -- Nature of Inorganic Chemical Compounds: Groups 1 to 3 and 12 to 17 -- The Nature of Transition Metal Compounds: Groups 4 to 11 -- Variable Combining Ratios and Spin States -- Important Heavy Elements -- Availability -- Non-Equilibrated Inorganic Systems: Barriers to Change -- Non-Equilibrium Inorganic Systems: Energy Storage -- Reactions and Catalysis by Inorganic Environmental Compounds, Especially Sulfides -- Summary of Inorganic Compounds Related to the Global Ecosystem -- Organic Chemistry -- Introduction to Organic Compounds of Ecological Relevance -- Stability and Reactivity of Organic Chemicals -- Stereochemistry -- The Importance of Temperature and Light: Rates of Organic Reactions -- Bringing Inorganic and Organic Chemistry Together -- Introduction -- Complex Formation: Selectivity -- Matching Redox Potentials of Inorganic and Organic Chemicals -- Electron and Proton Transfer -- The Importance of Rates of Exchange -- Selective Action of Metal Ion Complexes in Catalysis. , The Special Nature of Hydrogen -- Summary of the Basic Chemistry Relevant to Our Global Ecosystem -- Further Reading -- Energy, Order and Disorder, and Organised Systems -- Introduction -- Energy -- Order and Disorder: Equilibrium -- Some Steady States and Organisation -- Radiation Energy: Calculating its Disorder and Amount of Flow -- Optimal Rates of Energy Conversion and Optimal Retention of Energy in Cyclic Steady States: Content of a System -- Shape of Organised Systems and Energy: Maintained Form -- Evolution of a System going away from Equilibrium -- Form and Information: Multiple Component Systems -- Organisation and Compartments -- Organisation Messengers Feedback and Codes -- Energy Sources and Controlled Distribution of Energy -- Information Defined -- Cell Organisation, Equilibrium and Kinetic Constraints -- Informed Cellular Systems -- Ways of Looking at Ecological Chemical Systems: Summary -- A Note on Equilibrium Thermodynamics and Equilibrium Constants -- Further Reading -- Outline of Biological Chemical Principles: Components, Pathways and Controls -- Introduction -- Organisms: Their Classification as Thermodynamic Chemotypes -- Organisms: Their Generalised Element Content -- The Functional Value of the Elements in Organisms: Introduction to Biological Compounds -- Non-Metal Chemistry and its Basic Biological Pathways: Coding -- Informed Systems of Organic Molecules -- Pathways and Efficiency -- Structures and Maintained Flow: Containment -- The Selection of Coded Molecules: DNA(RNA) -- RNA and the Possible RNA World -- Proteins: Folding, Catalysts and Transcription Factors -- Proteins: Biological Machines in Water -- Proteins in Membranes -- Summary of Non-Metal Functions in Cells -- Why were Metal Ions Required? -- Combining Metal and Non-Metal Chemistry: Structures and Activities -- The Biological Properties of Hydrogen. , Cell Organisation and Constraints: Equilibria -- Kinetic Controls and Networks and their Energetics -- Summary -- The Magnitudes of Equilibrium Constraints in Cell Systems -- Equilibrium Redox Potential Controls -- Molecular Machines - Efficiency and Effectiveness -- References to Appendix 4c -- Further Reading -- First Steps in Evolution of Prokaryotes: Anaerobic Chemotypes Four to Three Billion Years Ago -- Introduction -- First Steps: The Evolution of Prokaryotes: General Considerations of the Origins of Anaerobes -- The Two Classes of Recognised Early Prokaryotes -- The Introduction of Coenzymes: Optimalising Basic H, C, N, O, P Distribution -- Primitive Metal Reaction Centres -- Metal/Organic Cofactors -- The Use of Light to Full Advantage -- Manganese in Cells/Oxygen Evolution -- The Molybdenum Cofactor, Moco -- Early Uses of Zinc, Calcium, Vanadium and Sodium -- Summary of Anaerobic Prokaryote Metabolism -- Energy Flow in Anaerobes -- The Polymers in Primitive Cells -- Gene Responses in Prokaryotes -- Satellite DNA: Plasmids -- Prokaryote Controls -- Internal Flows and General Movement: Sensing and Searching Chemotaxis -- Conclusion: Anaerobic Chemotypes and their Development -- Further Reading -- The Evolution of Protoaerobic and Aerobic Prokaryote Chemotypes (Three to Two Billion Years Ago) -- Introduction -- The Beginning of an Aerobic Environment: Protoaerobic Bacteria -- Protection of the Cytoplasm of Protoaerobes -- Reduction of Environmental Oxidised Compounds of Non-Metals -- The Employment of Metal Ions in Protoaerobes and the Special Cases of Molybdenum and Vanadium -- The Direct Use of Oxygen: Aerobes -- The Handling of Metals by Aerobes -- Cytoplasmic and Membrane Organisation of Proteins -- The Need for Extra Compartments -- The Periplasmic Space and Oxidative Metabolism. , Novel Forms of Control and Organisation: New Genetic Features of Aerobes -- Summary of Prokaryote Development -- Further Reading -- Unicellular Eukaryotes Chemotypes (About One and a Half Billion Years Ago?) -- Introduction -- Plant, Animal and Fungal Eukaryotes and Interactions Between them -- Connections between Eukaryotes, their Compartments and Prokaryotes -- The Organelles of Eukaryotes -- The uses of Other Compartments: Further Separate Activities -- Reproduction, Growth and Form -- The Threat of Dioxygen : The Chemistry of Protection -- Additional Distributions of Elements in Unicellular Eukaryote Compartments: the Eukaryote Metallome and the Advantages of Compartmentalised Oxygen Metabolism -- The Proteome and the Metabolome -- The Proteins for Metal Ions in Eukaryotes -- Messengers in Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- The Crucial Nature of the Calcium Ion -- Minerals in Unicellular Plants and Animals and their Deposition -- Gene Development in Eukaryotes -- Mutual Dependence of Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes -- Further Reading -- Multi-Cellular Eukaryote Chemotypes (From One Billion Year Ago) -- Introduction -- The Morphological Nature of Multi-Cellular Eukaryotes -- The Evolution of Multi-Cellular Plants -- The Evolution of Multi-Cellular Fungi -- The Evolution of Multi-Cellular Animals -- Diversity within the Major Chemotypes -- Growth of Plants and Animals from Single Cells -- The General Chemical Changes in the Ecosystem Some one Billion Years Ago -- The Chemical Changes of the Environment -- Chemical Changes in Whole Multi-Cellular Organisms -- Novel Proteins Associated with Multi-Cellular Organisms -- New Functional uses of Elements: General Outline -- The Use of Elements in Compartments and in Signalling -- Growth and Differentiation -- The Production of Chemical Messengers between Cells in Organs -- Connective Tissues. , A Further Note on Calcium -- Light Switches in Plants and Animals -- The Protection Systems of Plants and Animals -- Changes in Genetic Structure -- Degradation Activity and Apoptosis -- Conclusion -- Further Reading -- The Evolution of Chemotypes with Nerves and a Brain (0.5 Billion Years Ago to Today) -- Introduction -- Senses -- The Development of Nerves -- The Brain -- The Physical Evolution of the Brain -- The Chemical Element Composition of the Brain -- The Brain Development as an Information Store: The Human Phenotype -- A Note on Animal Genes and Morphology -- The Biological Chemotypes of the Ecosystem: A Summary -- The Relationship between Plants, Fungi and Bacteria: A Summary -- The Relationship between Plants and Animals -- Energised Inorganic Elements and their Uses by the End of Biological Evolution -- The Direction of Biological Evolution -- Further Reading -- Evolution due to Mankind: A Completely Novel Chemotype (Less than One Hundred Thousand Years Ago) -- Introduction -- The Nature of Homo Sapiens -- The Evolution of Human Beings from 100,000 Years Ago -- The Coming of Science -- Mankind and the Detailed Use of Chemical Elements -- Mankind, Energy and External Machines -- Transport -- Human Message Systems -- Organisation and Mankind -- The Development of Self-Consciousness -- Human Genes -- Summary -- Note on Creation and Intelligent Design: Mankind's Inventions -- A Note on General Culture -- Further Reading -- Conclusion: The Inevitable Factors in Evolution -- Introduction -- The Darwinian Approach to Evolution -- Genes and Darwin's Proposals -- The General Thermodynamic View of Ecosystem Evolution in this Book -- The Chemical Sequence of the Environment -- Chemicals and their Changes in Organisms: Chemotypes -- The Continuous Gain in Use of Energy and its Degradation -- The Changing Use of Space -- The Changes in Organisation. , Symbiosis: A Form of Compartmental Collaboration.

Note: Intro -- Contents -- 1. Introduction: Why oxygen chemistry? -- Chemistry: The science of molecules -- Central role of oxygen in chemistry -- Dioxygen -- O[sub(2)], a unique natural product -- revolutionary transformation of biology and chemistry -- Process chemistry that utilizes O[sub(2)], HOOH, and O[sub(3)] -- References -- 2. Redox thermodynamics for oxygen species (O[sub(3)], O[sub(2)], HOO·, O[sub(2)][sup(-)]·, HOOH, HOO[sup(-)], O, O[sup(-)]·, and HO[sup(-)]) -- effects of media and pH -- Redox thermodynamics of dioxygen species and ozone -- Redox thermodynamics of atomic oxygen -- Nucleophilic attack via single-electron transfer -- Electrochemistry of dioxygen -- Summary -- References -- 3. Nature of chemical bonds for oxygen in its compounds -- Electronegativities of elements and valence-bond theory -- Covalent bonding in oxygen-containing molecules -- Covalent bond energies for oxygen in molecules -- The case against O[sub(2)][sup(+)]· -- References -- 4. Reactivity of Hydrogen Peroxide, Alkyl Hydroperoxides, and Peracids -- Elementary reaction chemistry -- Fenton chemistry -- Activation of HOOH by Lewis acids -- Fe(III)Cl[sub(3)]-induced epoxidation, mono-oxygenation, and dehydrogenation -- Oxygen-atom transfer chemistry -- formation and reactivity of atomic oxygen from hydroperoxides [HOOH, ROOH, R'C(O)OOH] -- Activation of HOOH for dioxygenase chemistry -- Nucleophilic character of HOOH -- Biological systems -- References -- 5. Reactivity of oxygen radicals [HO·, RO·, HOO·, ROO·, and RC(O)O·] -- Reactivity of HO· -- Reactivity of HOO· -- References -- 6. Reactivity of dioxygen and its activation for selective dioxygenation, mono-oxygenation, dehydrogenation, and auto-oxidation of organic substrates and metals (corrosion) -- Introduction -- Radical-radical coupling and auto-oxidation. , Metal-induced activation of [sup(3)]O[sub(2)] for the initiation of auto-oxidation -- Metal-induced activation of dioxygen for oxygenase and dehydrogenase chemistry -- Metal-induced reductive activation of O[sub(2)] for mono-oxygenation -- Metal-surface-induced activation of dioxygen for oxygenase chemistry -- Biological systems -- Singlet dioxygen ([sup(1)]O[sub(2)]) -- References -- 7. Reactivity of superoxide ion -- Bronsted base -- Nucleophilicity -- One-electron reductant -- Sequential deprotonation-dehydrogenation of dihydrogroups -- Radical-radical coupling -- Biological systems -- References -- 8. Reactivity of oxy-anions [HO[sup(-)], RO[sup(-)], HOO[sup(-)] (ROO[sup(-)]), and O[sub(2)][sup(-)]] as nucleophiles and one-electron reducing agents -- Solvent effects on the redox chemistry of HO[sup(-)] -- Reaction classifications (single-electron shift mechanism) -- Relative reactivity of HOO[sup(-)]/O[sub(2)][sup(-)]·/HO[sup(-)] with electrophilic substrates -- Oxidative phosphorylation -- Summary -- References -- Index -- A -- B -- C -- D -- E -- F -- G -- H -- I -- K -- L -- M -- N -- O -- P -- Q -- R -- S -- T -- U -- V -- W -- X.

Note: Evolution's Destiny -- Contents -- Glossary -- Abbreviations -- About the Authors -- Chapter 1 Outline of the Main Chemical Factors in Evolution -- 1.1 Introduction to the Chemistry of the Ecosystem -- 1.1.1 The Involvement of the Elements in Evolution -- 1.2 Equilibrium and Steady State Conditions -- 1.3 Solubility -- 1.4 Complex Ion Formation -- 1.5 Standard Oxidation/Reduction Potentials -- 1.6 Rate Controls and Catalysis -- 1.7 The Dangers of Catalysis -- 1.8 Diffusion -- 1.9 Irreversibility, Chaos and Predictability -- 1.10 Summary -- References -- Chapter 2 Geological Evolution with Some Biological Intervention -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Physical Evolution from the Earliest Times to Today -- 2.3 The Value of Isotope Studies: Indicators of Chemical Changes and Geochemical Dates -- 2.4 The Early Chemical Development of the Environment before 3.0 Ga -- 2.5 Energy Capture and Surface Geochemical Changes: The Beginning of Organic Chemistry and Oxygen in the Atmosphere -- 2.6 The Environment after 3.0 Ga: Revolution in Redox Chemistry before 0.54 Ga -- 2.7 Sulfur Isotope Fractionation from 3.5 to 0.5 Ga -- Dominance of Iron/Sulfur Buffering -- 2.8 Evolving Mineral Outputs from the Ocean: Further Evidence for Redox Chemistry before 0.5 Ga -- 2.8.1 Banded Iron Formations and the State of Iron in Solution -- 2.8.2 Uranium and Thorium Minerals -- 2.9 Quantitative Analysis of Oxidation Conditions -- 2.10 Geochemical Changes of Trace Elements -- 2.10.1 Rare Earth Probes of the Environment -- 2.10.2 Trace Transition Metals in the Sea -- 2.11 The Non-Uniform Sea -- 2.12 Summary of Weathering from 3.5 Ga to 0.75 Ga -- 2.12.1 Weathering and Chemical Conditions from 0.75 Ga -- 2.12.2 Changes in Major Non-Redox Mineral Elements in the Sea from 0.54 Ga -- 2.12.3 Carbon Isotopes -- 2.12.4 Oxygen Isotopes. , 2.13 Summary of Geological 'Inorganic' Chemistry Evolution -- 2.14 A Note: The Relationship between Metal Structures in Organisms, Minerals and Chemical Models -- References -- Chapter 3 Organism Development from the Fossil Record and the Chemistry of the Nature of Biominerals -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 The Fossil Record -- 3.3 Extinctions -- 3.4 Types of Biominerals -- 3.5 The Chemistry of Biominerals: The Handling of Inorganic Elements -- 3.6 The Chemistry of Biominerals: Organic Components, Composites -- 3.7 Shapes of Organisms and Biominerals and Genetics -- 3.8 Induced and Controlled Biomineralisation and Genetics -- 3.9 Molecular Fossils -- 3.10 Carbon and Carbon/Hydrogen Deposits -- 3.11 Sulfur Deposits -- 3.12 Conclusions -- 3.13 Note -- References -- Chapter 4 Cells: Their Basic Organic Chemistry and their Environment -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 The Proposed Beginnings of Life: Anaerobic Prokaryotes -- 4.2.1 Energy Transduction and Use -- 4.3 Major Features of the Original Anaerobic Organic Chemistry -- 4.4 The Genome and the Proteome: Concentration Terms and Controls of Expression -- 4.4.1 Differences between Anaerobic Cell Types -- 4.5 Internal Structure of Prokaryotes and Production of New Proteins -- 4.5.1 Prokaryote Cell Walls and Membranes -- 4.6 The Essence of the Chemistry of Anaerobic Life -- 4.6.1 A Note on Prokaryote Diversity -- 4.7 Resources and the Coming of Oxygen: Micro-Aerobic and Aerobic Prokaryotes -- 4.8 The Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- 4.9 The Eukaryote Cell Nucleus -- 4.10 Filaments in Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- 4.11 Vesicles in Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- 4.12 Protection in Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- 4.13 Genetic Analysis of Unicellular Eukaryotes: Algae and Metazoans -- 4.14 Summary of the Evolution of Unicellular Eukaryotes -- 4.15 The Multicellular Eukaryotes. , 4.16 The Evolution of the Divisions in Space in Multicellular Organisms -- 4.17 Control of Growth and Shapes -- 4.18 Building Larger Structures: Internal and Extracellular Tissue Proteins -- 4.19 The Evolution of Biominerals and their Associated Structures -- 4.20 Extracellular Fluids -- 4.21 Signalling with Organic Molecules and Electrolytic Gradients in Multicellular Eukaryotes -- 4.22 Genetic Analysis of Multicellular Animals -- 4.23 Loss of Genes and Organism Collaboration: Internal and External Symbiosis -- 4.24 Summary of the Distinctive Features of Biological Organic Chemistry -- References -- Chapter 5 Other Major Elements in Organism Evolution -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Phosphorus in Cells -- 5.3 Sulfur in Cells -- 5.4 An Introduction to Magnesium, Calcium and Silicon Chemistry in Organisms -- 5.5 Magnesium in Cells -- 5.6 Calcium in Organisms -- 5.7 Introduction to Signalling -- 5.7.1 Detailed Calcium Protein Signalling and its Evolution in Eukaryotes -- 5.7.2 Weaker Binding Sites in Vesicles -- 5.8 Sodium/Potassium Messages -- 5.9 The Evolution of Biominerals -- 5.10 Calcium and Phosphates: Apatite -- 5.11 Silica -- 5.12 The Nature of the Matrices Supporting Mineralisation: Summary -- 5.13 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6 Trace Elements in the Evolution of Organisms and the Ecosystem -- 6.1 Introduction -- PART A. The Chemistry of the Trace Elements -- 6.2 The Availability of the Trace Elements -- 6.3 The Principles of Binding and Transfer of Trace Elements in Cells -- 6.4 The Importance of Quantitative Binding Strengths and Exchange in Cells -- 6.5 Examples of the Thermodynamic and Kinetic Limitations on Uptake of Metal Ions -- Part B. The Evolution of the Metalloproteins, the Metallomes and their Functional Value -- 6.6 Introduction -- 6.7 The Evolution of the Metalloproteins of Prokaryotes. , 6.8 The Evolution of the Metalloproteins of Eukaryotes -- 6.9 Survey of the Evolving Uses of Trace Elements -- 6.10 Effects of Metal Ion Limitations and Excesses on Growth -- 6.11 The Value of Zinc and Cadmium: 'Carbonic Anhydrases' -- 6.12 The Special Case of Two Non-Metals: Selenium and Iodine -- 6.13 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7 The Amalgamation of the Chemical and the Genetic Approaches to Evolution -- Part A. A Summary of the Chemical Approach -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 The Reasons for the Conditions of Earth Before Life Began and its Evolution: Equilibrium, Thermodynamics and Kinetic Limitations -- 7.3 The Reasons for the Evolution of Organic Chemistry Before Life Began: Kinetic and Energy Controls -- 7.4 The Direct and Indirect, Deduced, Evidence for Evolution of the System: Environment and Organisms -- 7.5 Anaerobic Cellular Chemistry to 3.0 Ga -- 7.6 The Oxidation of the System -- 7.7 Summary of the Evolution of the Oxidative Chemistry of the Elements -- 7.8 Summary of Why the Chemistry of the Environment/Organism System Arose and Evolved -- 7.9 Added Note on a Novel Genetic Analysis Related to Chemical Development -- Part B. The Connections Between the Chemical, the Biological and the Genetic Approaches to Evolution -- 7.10 The Nature of Genes: Gains and Losses of Genes and Inheritance -- 7.11 DNA Gene Duplication: A Possible Resolution of the Problem of Gene/Environment Interaction -- 7.12 Epigenetics and the Mechanism of Duplication -- 7.13 The Definition of Species and Symbiosis -- Part C. Concluding Perspectives -- 7.14 Final Summary of Chemical Evolution with Reproduction -- 7.15 The Chemical System and Mankind Today and its Future -- 7.16 A Note on Gaia -- References -- Subject Index.

Note: Chemistry at Oxford -- Contents -- Chapter 1 An Outline of the History of Oxford University with Reference to its Chemistry School -- 1.1 An Introduction to the University -- 1.2 The Beginnings of Chemistry within the University -- 1.3 The Creation of Chemistry Departments -- 1.4 The Teaching of Chemistry -- 1.5 A Summary of Chemistry's Development -- References -- Chapter 2 From Alchemy to Airpumps: The Foundations of Oxford Chemistry to 1700 -- 2.1 Late Medieval English Alchemy -- 2.2 The Hon. Robert Boyle and his Chemical World -- 2.3 Where were the Laboratories? -- 2.4 Oxford's 'Invisible' Chemists: The City Apothecaries and their Laboratories -- 2.5 The Oxford Airpump Discoveries -- 2.6 John Mayow -- 2.7 Thomas Willis -- 2.8 The Revd John Ward: Amateur Chemist and Physician -- 2.9 The Ashmolean Laboratory, 1683 -- Acknowledgements -- Notes and References -- Chapter 3 The Eighteenth Century: Chemistry Allied to Anatomy -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Chemistry in the Eighteenth Century -- 3.3 Oxford in the Eighteenth Century -- 3.4 The Teaching of Chemistry in Eighteenth-Century Oxford -- 3.5 The Revival of Chemistry after 1775 -- 3.6 Conclusion -- References and Notes -- Chapter 4 Chemistry Comes of Age: The 19th Century -- 4.1 The Aldrichian Chair -- 4.2 Charles Daubeny and Reform -- 4.3 The Museum -- 4.4 Benjamin Brodie -- 4.5 William Odling and his Demonstrators -- 4.6 The College Laboratories and the Growth of Physical Chemistry -- References -- Chapter 5 Research as the Thing: Oxford Chemistry 1912-1939 -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 The Impact of Perkin -- 5.3 The Contributions of the Colleges -- 5.4 The Mancunian Inheritance -- 5.5 The Dr Lee's Chair and Old Chemistry -- 5.6 The Chemical Synthesiser -- 5.7 X-Ray Crystallography -- 5.8 Careers: The Lure of Industry -- 5.9 Conclusion -- Notes and References. , Chapter 6 Interlude: Chemists at War -- References -- Chapter 7 Recent Times, 1945-2005: A School of World Renown -- 7.1 General Introduction to the Period: The Three Centres of Influence -- 7.1.1 The Three Periods 1945 to 1965, 1965 to 1980, 1980 to Today -- 7.1.2 Summary -- 7.2 Recruitment and the Nature of Professorships and Fellowship/Lectureships -- 7.2.1 A Note on Women Fellows in Chemistry -- 7.3 The Undergraduate Entry into Oxford and the Chemistry Course -- 7.3.1 The Butler Education Act 1944 -- 7.3.2 The Structure of the Chemistry Course -- 7.3.3 The Content of the Undergraduate Course -- 7.3.4 The Graduate School -- 7.4 The Three Professors and the Three Departments of 1945 -- 7.4.1 Hinshelwood and Physical Chemistry -- 7.4.2 Robinson and Organic Chemistry -- 7.4.3 The Third Professor: Sidgwick -- 7.4.4 The Acting Heads and Nature of the Third Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry (1945-1963) -- 7.5 Research 1945 to 1965 -- 7.5.1 Theory and Mathematical Research -- 7.5.2 Summary -- 7.6 Research 1965 to 1980 -- 7.6.1 The Revival of Inorganic Chemistry -- 7.6.2 Organo-Metallic Chemistry -- 7.6.3 Traditional Organic Chemistry -- 7.6.4 Physical Chemistry -- 7.6.5 Chemical Crystallography and Biophysics -- 7.6.6 Theoretical Chemistry and its Short-Lived Department -- 7.6.7 The Enzyme Group -- 7.6.8 Life in Oxford, 1945-1980 -- 7.7 Research: 1980 to 2005 -- 7.7.1 Introduction -- 7.7.2 Physical Chemistry -- 7.7.3 Theoretical Chemistry Department -- 7.7.4 Organic Chemistry -- 7.7.5 Inorganic Chemistry -- 7.7.6 Oxford Chemistry Today, 2008 -- Appendix 1 The Laboratories -- Acknowledgement -- Appendix 2 The Chemistry School Finances -- Acknowledgement -- Notes on Oxford University -- References -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.