Note: Cover -- Title page -- Copyright page -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Introduction -- Chapter One - The Growing Influence of Nanotechnology in Our Lives -- 1.1 - Nanomaterials and Fabrication Techniques -- 1.1.1 - Nanoparticles -- 1.1.2 - Nanowires -- 1.1.3 - Nanofilms -- 1.2 - Nanomaterials in Modern Life -- 1.2.1 - Zero-dimensional nanostructures -- 1.2.2 - One-dimensional nanostructures -- 1.2.3 - Two-dimensional nanostructures -- 1.3 - Conclusions -- References -- Chapter Two - Nanotechnology in Medical Research -- 2.1 - Introduction -- 2.2 - Diagnostic Nanoparticles -- 2.2.1 - Imaging agents -- 2.2.1.1 - Contrast Agents for MRI -- 2.2.1.2 - Contrast Agents for CT -- 2.2.1.3 - PET and SPECT Tracers -- 2.2.1.4 - Optical Imaging Agents -- 2.2.1.5 - Ultrasound Imaging Agents -- 2.2.1.6 - Photoacoustic Contrast Agents -- 2.2.2 - Nanoparticle biosensors -- 2.2.2.1 - Sensing of Biomarkers -- 2.2.2.2 - Sensing of Infectious Diseases -- 2.3 - Therapeutic Nanoparticles -- 2.3.1 - Delivery systems and therapeutics -- 2.3.2 - Drug loading -- 2.3.3 - Targeted nanoparticles -- 2.4 - Multimodal Nanoparticles -- 2.4.1 - Multimodal imaging agents -- 2.4.2 - Theranostics -- 2.4.3 - Personalized multimodal therapy -- 2.5 - In Development -- References -- Chapter Three - Introduction to Vaccines and Vaccination -- 3.1 - Introduction to Vaccines and Vaccination -- 3.1.1 - A brief history of vaccines and vaccination -- 3.1.2 - The rationale behind vaccination -- 3.1.3 - Vaccine subtypes -- 3.1.4 - Immunization sites and devices -- 3.1.4.1 - Intramuscular Immunizations -- 3.1.4.2 - Subcutaneous Immunizations -- 3.1.4.3 - Cutaneous Immunizations -- 3.1.4.4 - Mucosal Immunizations -- 3.2 - Challenges -- 3.3 - Conclusions -- References -- Chapter Four - Overview of the Immune System -- 4.1 - A Short History of Immunology -- 4.2 - Immune Responses to Infection. , 4.3 - Innate Immunity -- 4.4 - Induced Innate Immune System -- 4.4.1 - Phagocytes -- 4.4.2 - Pattern recognition by innate immune cells -- 4.4.3 - Dendritic cells -- 4.4.4 - Natural killer cells -- 4.4.5 - Mast cells and basophils -- 4.5 - The Adaptive Immune System -- 4.6 - Cells of the Adaptive Immune System -- 4.6.1 - T cells -- 4.6.2 - B cells -- 4.6.3 - Immunological memory -- 4.7 - Immunoglobulin Classes and Function -- 4.8 - Blurring the Lines Between Innate and Adaptive Immunity -- 4.8.1 - Innate-like lymphocytes -- 4.8.2 - Innate immune cells with memory -- 4.9 - Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter Five - The Role of Antigen Presentation and Innate Immunity During Immune Induction by Particulate Antigens -- 5.1 - Introduction to Vaccine Adjuvants -- 5.2 - The Innate Immune System as a Regulator of Adaptive Immunity -- 5.2.1 - The relationship between innate and adaptive immune systems -- 5.2.2 - Pattern recognition receptors and their ligands -- 5.3 - Nanoparticle Vaccine Delivery Systems -- 5.3.1 - Antigens attached to inert nanoparticles -- 5.3.2 - Particulate antigens containing innate immune stimulators -- 5.4 - Targeting APCs at the Site of Vaccination and in the Draining Lymph Node -- 5.4.1 - Immune responses in the local lymph node -- 5.4.2 - Immune responses linking the injection site to immunity in the lymph node as measured in afferent and efferent lymph -- 5.5 - Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter Six - Inflammatory/Noninflammatory Adjuvants and Nanotechnology-The Secret to Vaccine Design -- 6.1 - Current Challenges Facing Vaccine Design -- 6.2 - Inflammation: Angel or Devil? -- 6.3 - Adjuvant Selection for Vaccine Design -- 6.4 - Mechanisms of Conventional Adjuvants -- 6.4.1 - Alum -- 6.4.2 - MF59 -- 6.4.3 - TLR agonists -- 6.5 - Noninflammatory Adjuvants: Introducing Nanoparticles as Vaccine Adjuvants. , 6.5.1 - Adjuvant effects of nanoparticles themselves -- 6.5.2 - Nanoparticle modulation of immune cells can be independent of inflammatory mechanisms -- Summary -- References -- Chapter Seven - Vaccine Adjuvant Nanotechnologies -- 7.1 - Introduction -- 7.2 - Emulsion Adjuvants -- 7.2.1 - Other organic nanoparticulate adjuvants -- 7.2.2 - Inorganic nanoparticulate adjuvants -- 7.2.3 - Self-assembling virus-like particles -- 7.2.4 - Polypeptide-based self-assembled adjuvants -- 7.2.5 - Liposome and virosome particles -- 7.2.6 - Electrostatic particle self-assembly -- 7.2.7 - Lipid-like self-assembling adjuvant particles -- 7.2.8 - QS21 and immune-stimulating complexes -- 7.3 - Microparticulate Polysaccharide Adjuvants -- 7.4 - Immune Targeting Strategies -- 7.5 - Innate Immune Receptor Ligands -- 7.6 - Template-Based Nanoparticle Manufacturing Methods -- 7.6.1 - Emulsions for template-based particle assembly -- 7.6.2 - PRINT-based adjuvant production -- 7.7 - Conclusions -- References -- Chapter Eight - Nanoparticle-Based Peptide Vaccines -- 8.1 - Introduction -- 8.2 - Vaccine Components -- 8.2.1 - Traditional microbial vaccines -- 8.2.2 - Downsizing to peptide antigens -- 8.2.3 - Size of vaccine components -- 8.2.4 - Size issues of particle-based vaccines -- 8.3 - Utility of synthetic peptides for subunit vaccines -- 8.4 - Upsizing Peptide Antigens -- 8.4.1 - Multiple antigen peptide system -- 8.4.2 - Multiple antigen-presenting nanoparticles -- 8.5 - Lipopeptide-Based Nanovaccines -- 8.6 - Self-assembling peptides -- 8.6.1 - Self-assembling protein antigens -- 8.6.2 - Self-assembling peptide-based nanovaccines -- 8.7 - Concluding Remarks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter Nine - Microparticles and Nanoparticles for Cancer-Targeting Vaccines -- 9.1 - Introduction -- 9.1.1 - Adjuvants -- 9.1.2 - Codelivery of antigens and adjuvants. , 9.1.3 - Microparticles and nanoparticles for cancer vaccines -- 9.1.4 - Delivery of vaccines with biodegradable particles -- 9.1.5 - The potential effect of particle size on cancer vaccinations -- 9.1.6 - Novel applications for the delivery of CpG ODN with microparticle- and nanoparticle-based cancer vaccines -- 9.1.7 - Use of microparticles in heterologous prime-boost vaccinations -- 9.2 - Conclusions -- References -- Chapter Ten - Polymer-Based Nanoparticles as Modern Vaccine Delivery Systems -- 10.1 - Introduction -- 10.2 - Immune Defense Mechanisms: From Innate to Adaptive Immunity -- 10.3 - Design of Polymeric Nanovaccines -- 10.3.1 - Antigen content of nanoparticles -- 10.3.2 - Nanoparticles as delivery systems -- 10.3.3 - Surface modification for immune cell targeting -- 10.3.4 - Modulation of antigen-processing pathways -- 10.4 - Polymers Used for Nanovaccine Design -- 10.4.1 - Poly(d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) and derivatives -- 10.4.2 - Polystyrene and polypropylene -- 10.4.3 - Polyethylenimine -- 10.4.4 - Chitosan -- 10.4.5 - Dendrimers -- 10.4.6 - Self-assembling amphiphilic polymers -- 10.5 - Routes of Administrations -- 10.6 - Polymer-Based Nanoparticles in Clinical Trials -- 10.7 - Conclusions and Future Perspectives -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter Eleven - Virus-Like Particles -- 11.1 - Introduction -- 11.1.1 - General properties of VLPs -- 11.1.2 - VLPs as platform for antigen presentation -- 11.1.3 - Immunogenicity of virus-like particles -- 11.1.4 - VLP-based vaccines in human clinical use -- 11.1.5 - Computational design of VLP-based vaccines -- 11.1.6 - Current and emerging paradigms for VLP production -- 11.2 - Conclusions -- References -- Chapter Twelve - Liposomes as a Vaccine Delivery System -- 12.1 - Vaccines and Vaccinations -- 12.2 - Liposomes: A Brief Introduction. , 12.2.1 - Formulation considerations of liposomes and their impact on immunogenicity -- 12.2.2 - Targeting ability of liposomes -- 12.3 - Influence of Liposome Size and Surface Charge on Vaccine Responses -- 12.3.1 - Size -- 12.3.2 - Surface charge -- 12.4 - Types of Liposomes -- 12.4.1 - Virosomes -- 12.4.2 - Vesosomes -- 12.4.3 - Niosomes -- 12.4.4 - Bilosomes -- 12.4.5 - pH fusogenic liposomes -- 12.4.6 - Ethosomes -- 12.4.7 - Archaesomes -- 12.4.8 - Proteoliposome -- 12.5 - Methods of Liposomal Manufacturing -- 12.5.1 - Mechanical methods -- 12.5.1.1 - Preparation by film hydration -- 12.5.1.2 - Microfluidization -- 12.5.2 - Replacement of organic solvents by aqueous media -- 12.5.2.1 - Ethanol Injection -- 12.5.2.2 - Reverse Phase Evaporation -- 12.5.3 - Detergent depletion method -- 12.6 - Size Manipulation -- 12.6.1 - Homogenization -- 12.6.2 - Sonication -- 12.7 - Factors to Consider for Scaling Up of Vaccine Production -- 12.8 - Conclusions -- References -- Chapter Thirteen - Nanomaterials Based on Lipids for Vaccine Development -- 13.1 - The Importance of Particles As Adjuvants -- 13.2 - Lipid-Covered Particles and Bilayer Fragments As Adjuvants -- 13.3 - Lipidic Immunostimulants and Solid Lipid Nanoparticles -- 13.4 - Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter Fourteen - Microparticles for Vaccine Delivery -- 14.1 - Introduction -- 14.1.1 - MPs: a versatile platform in vaccine delivery -- 14.1.2 - MPs as delivery systems -- 14.1.2.1 - DNA Vaccines -- 14.1.3 - Immunopotentiator/adjuvants -- 14.1.4 - For HIV vaccines -- 14.1.5 - Cancer vaccine delivery -- 14.2 - Conclusions -- References -- Chapter Fifteen - Nasal Vaccine Delivery -- 15.1 - Introduction -- 15.1.1 - Mucosal infections -- 15.1.2 - Importance of nasal vaccines -- 15.1.3 - Benefits and challenges of developing nasal vaccines -- 15.2 - The Nasal Route. , 15.2.1 - Nasal anatomy.