Note: Front Cover -- Copyright Page -- Germanium-Based Technologies -- Contents -- Editors -- Contributors -- List of Acronyms -- List of Symbols -- Introduction -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Historical Perspective and Milestones -- 3 Ge as a Novel ULSI Substrate: Opportunities and Challenges -- 4 Outline of the Book -- References -- Chapter 1 Germanium Materials -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Bulk Wafer Manufacturing -- 1.2.1 Germanium raw materials: supply and production flow sheet -- 1.2.1.1 Supply -- 1.2.1.2 Production flow sheet -- 1.2.2 Germanium crystal growth -- 1.2.2.1 Introduction and specific features of Czochralski Ge crystal growth -- 1.2.2.2 Ge single crystals for IR optics -- 1.2.2.3 HP-Ge crystals for radiation detectors -- 1.2.2.4 Dislocation-free Ge crystals -- 1.2.2.5 Modeling of Ge crystal growth -- 1.2.3 Germanium wafer manufacturing -- 1.2.3.1 Introduction -- 1.2.3.2 Wafer preparation: general remarks -- 1.2.3.3 Wafer preparation: process steps -- 1.2.3.4 Germanium recycling -- 1.3 GOI Substrates -- 1.3.1 Back-grind SOI -- 1.3.2 GOI substrates by layer transfer -- 1.3.2.1 Donor wafers -- 1.3.2.2 GOI realization -- 1.3.2.3 Characterization of GOI substrates -- 1.3.2.4 GOI MOSFETs -- 1.3.2.5 GOI as III-V epitaxy template -- 1.4 General Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2 Grown-in Defects in Germanium -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Intrinsic Point Defects in Germanium -- 2.2.1 Simulation of intrinsic point defect properties -- 2.2.2 Experimental data on vacancy properties -- 2.2.3 Application of the Voronkov model to germanium -- 2.3 Extrinsic Point Defects -- 2.3.1 Dopants -- 2.3.2 Neutral point defects -- 2.3.3 Carbon -- 2.3.4 Hydrogen -- 2.3.5 Oxygen -- 2.3.6 Nitrogen -- 2.3.7 Silicon -- 2.4 Dislocation Formation During Czochralski Growth -- 2.4.1 Thermal simulation -- 2.4.2 Development of mechanical stresses. , 2.4.3 Mechanical properties of germanium -- 2.4.4 Dislocation nucleation and multiplication during crystal pulling -- 2.4.5 Electrical impact of dislocations in germanium -- 2.5 Point Defect Clustering -- 2.5.1 Experimental observations of vacancy clustering -- 2.5.2 Modeling and simulation of vacancy cluster formation -- 2.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 3 Diffusion and Solubility of Dopants in Germanium -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Diffusion in Semiconductors -- 3.2.1 Diffusion mechanisms -- 3.2.2 Self-diffusion -- 3.3 Intrinsic Point Defects in Germanium -- 3.3.1 Quenching -- 3.3.2 Irradiation -- 3.4 Self- and Group IV Diffusion in Germanium and Silicon -- 3.4.1 Radioactive tracer experiments -- 3.4.2 Isotope effects and Group IV (Si -- Sn) diffusion in Ge -- 3.4.3 Doping and pressure effects -- 3.4.4 Diffusion of Ge in Si -- 3.5 Solubility of Impurities in Germanium -- 3.6 Diffusion of Group III and V Dopants in Germanium -- 3.6.1 Group III acceptor diffusion -- 3.6.1.1 Boron -- 3.6.1.2 Aluminum -- 3.6.1.3 Indium and gallium -- 3.6.2 Group V donor diffusion -- 3.6.2.1 Phosphorus -- 3.6.2.2 Arsenic -- 3.6.2.3 Antimony -- 3.6.3 Electric field effects on dopant diffusion in Ge -- 3.6.4 Summary -- 3.7 General Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 4 Oxygen in Germanium -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Interstitial Oxygen -- 4.2.1 Measurement of oxygen concentration -- 4.2.2 Diffusion and solubility -- 4.2.3 Structure of the vibration spectrum and defect model -- 4.3 TDs and the Oxygen Dimer -- 4.3.1 Electronic states of TDs -- 4.3.2 Vibrational spectrum of TDs -- 4.3.3 Vibrational spectrum of the oxygen dimer -- 4.4 Infrared Absorption of Oxygen Precipitates -- 4.5 The Vacancy-Oxygen Defect -- 4.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5 Metals in Germanium -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Copper in Germanium. , 5.2.1 Distribution coefficient k[sub(d)] -- 5.2.2 Configurations of atomic Cu in Ge -- 5.2.3 The dissociative copper diffusion mechanism -- 5.2.4 Impact of doping density on Cu diffusion and solubility -- 5.2.5 Dissociative versus kick-out mechanism for copper diffusion in germanium -- 5.2.6 Precipitation of copper in germanium -- 5.2.7 Energy levels and capture cross sections of substitutional copper -- 5.2.8 Energy level for interstitial copper and Cu[sub(s)]-Cu[sub(i)] pairs -- 5.2.9 Impact of copper on carrier lifetime in germanium -- 5.3 Ag, Au and Pt in Germanium -- 5.3.1 Distribution coefficient, solubility and diffusivity -- 5.3.2 Energy levels and capture cross sections -- 5.3.3 Impact on carrier lifetime -- 5.4 Nickel in Germanium -- 5.4.1 Solubility and diffusivity of Ni in Ge -- 5.4.2 Energy levels and capture cross sections of Ni in Ge -- 5.4.3 Impact on carrier lifetime -- 5.5 TMs in Germanium -- 5.5.1 Iron -- 5.5.2 Cobalt -- 5.5.3 Manganese -- 5.5.4 Other TMs -- 5.5.4.1 Chromium -- 5.5.4.2 Zirconium -- 5.5.4.3 Titanium and vanadium -- 5.6 Chemical Trends in the Properties of Metals in Ge -- 5.6.1 Electrical properties -- 5.6.2 Optical properties of metals in germanium -- 5.6.3 Trends in the impact on carrier lifetime in Ge -- 5.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6 Ab-Initio Modeling of Defects in Germanium -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Quantum Mechanical Methods -- 6.2.1 Clusters and supercells -- 6.3 Kohn-Sham and Occupancy Levels -- 6.4 Formation Energies, Vibrational Modes, Energy levels -- 6.5 Defect Modeling in Ge -- 6.6 Defects in Germanium -- 6.6.1 Vacancies and divacancies in Ge -- 6.6.2 The self-interstitial -- 6.6.3 Nitrogen defects -- 6.6.4 Carbon in germanium -- 6.6.5 Oxygen in germanium -- 6.6.6 Thermal donors -- 6.6.7 Hydrogen in germanium -- 6.7 Electrical Levels of Defects -- 6.8 Summary -- References. , Chapter 7 Radiation Performance of Ge Technologies -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Interaction of Radiation with Solids -- 7.2.1 Damage processes -- 7.2.2 Comparison of electron, gamma ray, neutron and proton damage -- 7.2.3 Ion-implantation damage -- 7.3 Primary Radiation-Induced Defects and their Interactions with Impurities in Crystalline Ge -- 7.3.1 Frenkel-pairs, the lattice vacancy, divacancy and self-interstitial atom in Ge -- 7.3.2 Interaction of the intrinsic points defects with impurities in Ge -- 7.3.3 Ion-implantation-induced damage: multi-vacancy and multi-self-interstitial complexes in Ge -- 7.4 Effects on Devices -- 7.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8 Electrical Performance of Ge Devices -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Germanium p-n Junctions -- 8.2.1 Theory of a large-area p-n junction -- 8.2.2 Theory of a planar p-n junction -- 8.2.3 Theory of an ideal germanium p-n junction -- 8.2.4 Germanium bulk p-n junction diodes -- 8.2.5 State-of-the-art shallow germanium p-n junctions -- 8.3 Germanium-Based Gate Stacks -- 8.3.1 Equivalent oxide thickness -- 8.3.2 Ge/HfO[sub(2)] gate stacks -- 8.3.3 Passivation by an ultra-thin GeON interlayer -- 8.3.4 Si surface passivation -- 8.3.5 PH[sub(3)] surface passivation -- 8.3.6 Alternative high-k on Ge -- 8.4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 9 Device Modeling -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Modeling Germanium versus Silicon -- 9.3 Band Structure -- 9.3.1 Conduction band of bulk germanium -- 9.3.2 Valence band of bulk germanium -- 9.3.3 Energy dispersion in germanium inversion layers: electrons -- 9.3.4 Energy dispersion in germanium inversion layers: holes -- 9.4 Performance Limit -- 9.4.1 Analytical expression for the ballistic current -- 9.4.2 Results: Ge versus Si MOSFETs -- 9.5 Semi-classical Transport -- 9.5.1 BTE: bulk semiconductor -- 9.5.2 BTE: 2D inversion layers. , 9.5.3 Solution of the BTE: methods based on the moments -- 9.5.4 Solution of the BTE: MC for bulk Ge -- 9.5.5 MC with quantum corrections -- 9.5.6 Multi-subband MC -- 9.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10 Nanoscale Germanium MOS Dielectrics and Junctions -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Germanium Oxynitride Dielectrics -- 10.2.1 Germanium oxynitride synthesis and properties -- 10.2.2 Basic MOS electrical characterizations -- 10.2.3 Dielectric-substrate interface analyses -- 10.2.4 Dielectric leakage behavior -- 10.2.5 Summary -- 10.3 High-permittivity Metal Oxide Dielectrics -- 10.3.1 High-k dielectrics selection criteria -- 10.3.2 ALD of high-k dielectrics -- 10.3.2.1 ALD of zirconia -- 10.3.2.2 ALD of hafnia -- 10.3.3 UVO of high-k dielectrics -- 10.3.3.1 UVO of zirconia -- 10.3.3.2 Zirconia-germanium interface photoemission spectroscopy -- 10.3.3.3 UVO of hafnia -- 10.3.4 Other high-k deposition techniques -- 10.3.4.1 Metal-organic chemical vapor deposition of hafnia -- 10.3.4.2 PVD of zirconia and hafnia -- 10.3.4.3 Atomic oxygen beam deposition of hafnia -- 10.3.5 Nanoscale dielectrics leakage and scalability -- 10.3.6 Summary -- 10.4 Shallow Junctions in Germanium -- 10.4.1 Ion implantation doping -- 10.4.1.1 p-type junction activation with furnace anneal -- 10.4.1.2 Complementary junction activation with rapid thermal anneal -- 10.4.1.3 n-type junction activation dependences -- 10.4.2 SSD doping -- 10.4.2.1 n-type junction activation and diffusion -- 10.4.2.2 Dopant deactivation within activated junctions -- 10.4.3 Metal germanide contacts -- 10.4.4 Summary -- 10.5 General Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 11 Advanced Germanium MOS Devices -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 The Quest for High Mobility MOSFET Channel -- 11.2.1 Challenges to scaling conventional CMOS -- 11.2.2 High mobility channel justification and selection. , 11.3 Relaxed Bulk Channel Germanium MOSFETs.

Note: Intro -- Preface -- Contents -- Abbreviations -- Symbols -- Greek Symbols -- 1 Introduction -- References -- 2 Basic Properties of Transition Metals in Semiconductors -- 2.1 Solid Solubility -- 2.2 Diffusivity -- 2.2.1 Ion Pairing and Doping Effects -- 2.3 Segregation and Precipitation -- 2.4 Electrical Properties of Transition Metals -- References -- 3 Source of Metals in Si and Ge Crystal Growth and Processing -- 3.1 Crystal Growth -- 3.2 Wet Wafer Cleaning Processes -- 3.2.1 Contamination in Si Cleaning Technology -- 3.2.2 Contamination in Ge Cleaning Technology -- 3.3 Dry Vapor Phase Wafer Cleaning -- 3.4 Photoresist Deposition and Stripping -- 3.5 Wafer Handling -- 3.6 Ion Implantation -- 3.7 Thermal Processing -- 3.8 Metal Layers in Device Fabrication -- 3.8.1 Silicidation and Germanidation -- 3.8.2 Metallization -- 3.8.3 3D Integration-Through Silicon Vias (TSV) -- 3.8.4 Ferroelectric Memories -- References -- 4 Characterization and Detection of Metals in Silicon and Germanium -- 4.1 Chemical Analysis of Metals -- 4.1.1 Elemental Analysis of Surface Metal Contamination -- 4.1.2 Elemental Analysis of Bulk Metal Contamination -- 4.1.3 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance -- 4.1.4 Mössbauer Spectroscopy -- 4.2 Structural Analysis -- 4.2.1 Structural Analysis of Metal Precipitates -- 4.2.2 Structural Analysis of Metal-Related Point Defects -- 4.3 Electrical Analysis -- 4.3.1 Theoretical and Practical Considerations for Lifetime Measurements -- 4.3.2 Surface Photo Voltage Lifetime Analysis -- 4.3.3 PhotoConductance Decay (PCD) and QSS-PC Method -- 4.3.4 ELYMAT -- 4.3.5 PL Imaging -- 4.3.6 Carrier Lifetime by IR Imaging -- 4.3.7 Lifetime Mapping of Extended Defects -- 4.3.8 MOS Generation Lifetime Techniques -- 4.3.9 Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy -- 4.4 Strategy for Metal Contamination Monitoring -- References. , 5 Electrical Activity of Iron and Copper in Si, SiGe and Ge -- 5.1 Iron -- 5.1.1 Configurations of Fe -- 5.1.1.1 Interstitial and Substitutional Fe -- 5.1.1.2 Dopant-Iron Pairs -- 5.1.1.3 Small Fe-Related Clusters and Fe-Related Complexes -- 5.1.1.4 Fe Precipitation -- 5.1.2 Electrical Properties of Fe -- 5.1.2.1 Fei and FeA Pairs in Silicon -- 5.1.2.2 Fe-Related Point Defects in Si and Ge -- 5.1.2.3 Fe-Related Clusters and Precipitates -- 5.1.2.4 Fe Activation of Extended Defects -- 5.1.3 Detection and Identification of Fe in Silicon -- 5.2 Copper -- 5.2.1 Configurations of Copper -- 5.2.1.1 Cu-Related Point Defects -- 5.2.1.2 Heterogeneous Precipitation of Copper -- 5.2.1.3 Homogeneous Precipitation of Copper -- 5.2.1.4 Precipitation Versus Out-Diffusion -- 5.2.2 Electrical Activity of Cu -- 5.2.2.1 Copper-Related Point Defects -- 5.2.2.2 Electrical Activity of Precipitated Copper -- 5.2.2.3 Copper Activation and Passivation of Extended Defects -- 5.2.3 Detection of Copper -- 5.2.3.1 Lifetime-Based Sensitive Copper Detection -- 5.2.3.2 Transient Ion Drift Analysis of Copper in Silicon -- References -- 6 Electrical Properties of Metals in Si and Ge -- 6.1 Nickel in Si and Ge -- 6.1.1 Ni-related Point Defects and Complexes -- 6.1.2 Precipitation and Co-precipitation of Ni -- 6.1.2.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Precipitation of NiSi2 -- 6.1.2.2 Co-precipitation of Nickel in Silicon -- 6.1.3 Electrical and Optical Activity of Ni -- 6.1.3.1 Nickel-Related Point Defects and Complexes -- 6.1.3.2 Electrically Active Point Defects in Ge and SiGe -- 6.1.3.3 Electrical Activity of Nickel Precipitates -- 6.1.3.4 Nickel-Decorated Extended Defects -- 6.1.4 Impact of Ni on Recombination Lifetime -- 6.2 Cobalt in Si and Ge -- 6.2.1 Co-related Species in Si -- 6.2.1.1 Atomic and Clustered Species -- 6.2.1.2 Buried CoSi2 Formation. , 6.2.2 Electrical and Optical Activity of Co in Si -- 6.2.2.1 Levels from Resistivity and Photoconductivity -- 6.2.2.2 Deep Levels from Space-Charge Transient Techniques (DLTS) -- 6.2.3 Impact on Lifetime -- 6.3 Chromium in Si and Ge -- 6.3.1 Configurations of Cr in Si -- 6.3.2 Electrical and Optical Activity of Cr in Si -- 6.3.2.1 Electrical Properties -- 6.3.2.2 Optical Properties -- 6.3.2.3 Impact of Cr on Lifetime in Silicon -- 6.3.2.4 Identification of Cr in Silicon by Lifetime Measurements -- 6.4 Titanium -- 6.5 Molybdenum -- 6.6 Palladium -- 6.7 Platinum -- 6.8 Gold -- 6.9 Scandium -- 6.10 Vanadium -- 6.11 Manganese -- 6.12 Zinc -- 6.13 Zirconium -- 6.14 Niobium -- 6.15 Ruthenium -- 6.16 Rhodium -- 6.17 Silver -- 6.18 Cadmium -- 6.19 Hafnium -- 6.20 Tantalum -- 6.21 Tungsten -- 6.22 Rhenium-Osmium -- 6.23 Iridium -- 6.24 Mercury -- References -- 7 Impact of Metals on Silicon Devices and Circuits -- 7.1 MOS Capacitors -- 7.1.1 Impact of Metal Contamination on MOS Capacitors -- 7.1.1.1 Diffusion, Precipitation and Segregation of Metals in Dielectric Layers -- 7.1.1.2 Impact of Fe on MOS Capacitors -- 7.1.1.3 Impact of Nickel on MOS Capacitors -- 7.1.2 Impact of Copper on MOS Capacitors -- 7.1.2.1 Basic Properties of Copper in SiO2 -- 7.1.2.2 Diffusion of Cu in Low-κ Dielectrics -- 7.1.2.3 Impact of Cu on MOS Capacitors -- 7.1.2.4 Impact on Interlayer Dielectric Integrity -- 7.2 Impact on p-n Junction Devices and Schottky Barriers -- 7.2.1 Metal Contamination in p-n Junctions -- 7.2.1.1 Impact of Copper -- 7.2.1.2 Impact of Other TMs -- 7.2.2 Silicidation-Induced Metal Contamination -- 7.2.2.1 Ti-Silicidation -- 7.2.2.2 Co-silicidation -- 7.2.2.3 Ni-Silicidation -- 7.2.3 Metal Contamination in Silicon Solar Cells -- 7.2.3.1 Impact Defects on Solar Cell Parameters -- 7.2.3.2 Impact Specific TMs on Solar Cells. , 7.2.3.3 Acceptable Metal Levels in Mc-Si Solar Cells -- 7.2.4 Impact on Schottky Barriers -- 7.3 Impact on Transistors and on Circuit Operation and Yield -- 7.3.1 Impact on Transistors -- 7.3.2 Impact on Circuits -- 7.3.3 Impact on Yield -- References -- 8 Gettering and Passivation of Metals in Silicon and Germanium -- 8.1 Gettering Strategies -- 8.1.1 Metal Gettering Mechanisms -- 8.2 Backside Gettering Mechanisms -- 8.2.1 Glass Layer Gettering -- 8.2.2 Thin Layer Gettering -- 8.2.2.1 Aluminum Films -- 8.2.2.2 Silicon Nitride and Polysilicon Layers -- 8.2.3 Ion Implantation Gettering -- 8.3 Intrinsic Gettering Mechanisms -- 8.4 Frontside Gettering Techniques -- 8.4.1 Buried Epitaxial or Porous Si Layer -- 8.4.2 Ion Implantation -- 8.4.2.1 Nano Cavities -- 8.4.2.2 Near-Surface Proximity Gettering -- 8.5 Gettering in SOI Material -- 8.5.1 SIMOX SOI Material -- 8.5.2 Ultra-thin Body and BOX (UTBB) -- 8.6 Gettering Processes for Photovoltaics -- 8.7 Modeling Gettering Processes -- References -- 9 Modeling of Metal Properties in Si, Si1−xGex and Ge -- 9.1 Modeling Approaches -- 9.1.1 EPR-Based Models -- 9.1.2 First-Principles Calculations -- 9.1.3 Calculation of Parameters in DFT -- 9.2 Configurations of Individual Metal Atoms -- 9.2.1 Trends in the Properties of 3d TMs in Si and Ge -- 9.2.2 Iron in Si and SiGe -- 9.2.3 Copper in Si -- 9.2.4 Cobalt in Si -- 9.2.5 Vanadium in Si -- 9.2.6 Manganese in Si and Ge -- 9.3 Diffusion of Metal Atoms in Si and Ge -- 9.3.1 Elastic Energy Approach -- 9.3.2 Thermodynamic Approach -- 9.3.3 DFT and MD Calculations -- 9.4 Interactions of Metals with Dopants, H, O, C in Si and Ge -- 9.4.1 Interaction with Dopants -- 9.4.2 Interaction with Hydrogen -- 9.4.3 Interaction with Oxygen and Carbon -- 9.5 Interactions of Metals with Other Defects, Clustering and Gettering -- 9.5.1 Metal Pairs, Clusters and Precipitates. , 9.5.2 Interaction with Implantation and Extended Defects -- 9.5.3 First-Principles Studies of Metal Gettering -- References -- Index.