Note: Intro -- Acoustical Society of America -- Series Preface -- Preface 1992 -- Volume Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- 1 Major Advances in Cochlear Research -- Abstract -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 The Cochlea: What It Is, Where It Came From, and What Is Special About It -- 1.3 New Directions in Cochlear Development -- 1.4 Mechanical Transduction Processes in the Hair Cell -- 1.5 Prestin: Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Outer Hair Cell Electromotility -- 1.6 Electromechanical Feedback Mechanisms and Power Transfer in the Mammalian Cochlea -- 1.7 Hair Cells and Their Synapses -- 1.8 Afferent Coding and Efferent Control in the Normal and Impaired Cochlea -- 1.9 Ion and Fluid Homeostasis in the Cochlea -- 1.10 Remote Sensing the Cochlea: Otoacoustics -- 1.11 Localized Internal Stimulation of the Living Cochlea Using Electrical and Optical Methods -- 1.12 Summary and Outlook -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References -- 2 The Cochlea: What It Is, Where It Came From, and What Is Special About It -- Abstract -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Where Did the Cochlea Come From? -- 2.3 What Is Special About the Cochlea? -- 2.3.1 The Loss of the Lagena -- 2.3.2 The Advent of Bony Laminae -- 2.3.3 Modifications of the Prestin Molecule -- 2.4 Did Coiling Have Any Effect on Function? -- 2.5 The Cochlea (Also) Determines the Hearing Range -- 2.6 Variation in Cochlear Form and Dimensions -- 2.7 Cochleae and Other Hearing Organs -- 2.8 Summary -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References -- 3 New Directions in Cochlear Development -- Abstract -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Embryonic Origin of the Mammalian Cochlea -- 3.2.1 Defining the Cardinal Axes of the Inner Ear -- 3.2.2 Transforming the Ventral Otocyst into the Cochlear Duct -- 3.2.3 Outstanding Issues Concerning the Embryonic Origin of the Cochlea -- 3.3 Formation of the Cochlear Prosensory Domain. , 3.3.1 Role of Notch Signaling and Sox2 in the Formation of Prosensory Patches -- 3.3.2 Role of Other Signaling Pathways in the Induction of the Cochlear Prosensory Domain: Fibroblast Growth Factors, Bone Morphogenetic Proteins, and Wnts -- 3.3.3 Outstanding Issues Concerning the Induction and Radial Patterning of the Prosensory Domain -- 3.4 Coordinating Developmental Gradients of Differentiation and Cell Cycle Exit in the Cochlea -- 3.4.1 The Unusual Pattern of Cell Cycle Exit and Differentiation in the Cochlea -- 3.4.2 How Are Cell Cycle Exit and Differentiation Uncoupled in the Cochlea? -- 3.4.3 Outstanding Issues Concerning Cell Cycle Exit and Differentiation in the Prosensory Domain -- 3.5 Fine-Grained Patterning and Cell-Type Specification in the Organ of Corti -- 3.5.1 Notch Signaling as a Mechanism to Distinguish Hair Cells from Supporting Cells -- 3.5.2 Specification of Subtypes of Hair Cells and Supporting Cells in the Organ of Corti -- 3.5.3 Outstanding Issues Concerning the Specification of Hair Cell and Supporting Cell Subtypes -- 3.6 Innervation of the Organ of Corti -- 3.6.1 Neurogenesis of the Spiral Ganglion -- 3.6.2 Development of Afferent Innervation -- 3.6.3 Development of Efferent Innervation -- 3.6.4 Unresolved Questions in Afferent and Efferent Innervation of the Cochlea -- 3.7 Concluding Thoughts -- 3.7.1 How Does the Cochlea Grow and Coil? -- 3.7.2 Reissner's Membrane and the Stria Vascularis: The Importance of Nonsensory Cochlear Development -- 3.7.3 Postmitotic Maturation of the Organ of Corti -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 4 Mechanical Transduction Processes in the Hair Cell -- Abstract -- 4.1 Hair Bundle Transduction and Adaptation -- 4.1.1 Structure, Mechanics, and Cohesion of the Hair Bundle -- 4.1.2 Measuring Mechanotransduction In Vivo and In Vitro -- 4.1.3 Generation of the Receptor Current. , 4.1.4 Fast and Slow Adaptation -- 4.1.4.1 Slow Adaptation -- 4.1.4.2 Fast Adaptation -- 4.1.4.3 Mechanical Correlates of Adaptation -- 4.1.4.4 Mammalian Hair Cells -- 4.1.5 Generation of the Receptor Potential -- 4.2 Molecular Components of the Hair Bundle Transduction Apparatus -- 4.2.1 Tip Links -- 4.2.2 Tip-Link Upper End -- 4.2.3 Tip-Link Lower End -- 4.2.4 Coupling of the Hair Bundle -- 4.2.5 Transduction Channel -- 4.3 Hair Bundle Mechanics and Motility -- 4.3.1 Nonlinear Mechanics and Channel Gating -- 4.3.2 Adaptation and Active Motility -- 4.3.3 Mechanical Loading -- 4.3.4 Response to Step Deflections -- 4.3.5 Amplification of Periodic Stimuli -- 4.3.6 The Energy for Amplification -- 4.3.7 Stimulation with Two Frequencies -- 4.3.8 Calcium Effects on Bundle Movement -- 4.3.9 Electrically Driven Motion -- 4.4 Electromotility of Mammalian Outer Hair Cells and Its Role in Amplification -- 4.4.1 Active Hair Bundle Motility in the Cochlea -- 4.4.2 Modeling Motile Forces in the Cochlea -- 4.4.3 The RC Time-Constant Problem and Interaction Between Active Hair Bundle Motility and Somatic Electromotility -- 4.5 Unresolved Problems -- 4.5.1 The Upper Frequency Limit of Hearing -- 4.5.2 The Nature of the Transduction Complex -- 4.5.3 Fast Adaptation and the Nature of Active Hair Bundle Motility -- 4.5.4 Somatic Electromotility -- 4.5.5 The Origin of Cochlear Amplification -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References -- 5 Prestin: Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Outer Hair Cell Electromotility -- Abstract -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Known Biophysical Properties of Prestin -- 5.2.1 The OHC Sensor/Motor: Preprestin -- 5.2.2 Enter Prestin -- 5.2.3 Importance of Prestin for Cochlear Amplification -- 5.2.4 How Does Prestin Sense Voltage? -- 5.2.5 How Many States/Transitions Does Prestin Have? -- 5.3 Structure and Function of Prestin. , 5.3.1 Molecular and Functional Features of Prestin -- 5.3.2 Molecular Structure of Prestin -- 5.3.3 Oligomerization -- 5.3.4 Anion Binding Site -- 5.3.5 Electromotile Molecular Transitions -- 5.4 Interaction of Prestin with Its Cellular Environment -- 5.4.1 Localization of Prestin Along the Basolateral Wall -- 5.4.2 Prestin's Interactome -- 5.4.2.1 Vesicle-Associated Membrane Protein -- 5.4.2.2 Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator -- 5.4.2.3 Calmodulin -- 5.4.2.4 Microtubule-Associated Proteins -- 5.4.2.5 Spectrin and Spectrin-Interacting Proteins -- 5.4.2.6 Calcium/Calmodulin-Dependent Serine Protein Kinase -- 5.4.3 Prestin in the Membrane Environment -- 5.4.3.1 Prestin as a Mechanosensitive Protein -- 5.4.3.2 Prestin as a Confined Protein -- 5.5 Conclusions and Open Questions -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References -- 6 Electromechanical Feedback Mechanisms and Power Transfer in the Mammalian Cochlea -- Abstract -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Cochlear Fluid Pressure and Amplification -- 6.2.1 Cochlear Pressure Waves: Classical Hydrodynamics -- 6.2.2 Measurement of Cochlear Fluid Pressure -- 6.2.3 Electromechanical Basis of Responses to Electrical Stimulation -- 6.2.4 Pressure Responses to Acoustic or Electrical Stimulation -- 6.2.5 Estimation of Velocity Responses from Pressure Responses -- 6.2.6 Active Mechanisms and Cochlear Amplification -- 6.2.7 Evidence For and Against Cochlear Power Amplification from Single-Parameter Measurements -- 6.2.8 Evidence for Cochlear Power Amplification from Multiparameter Measurements -- 6.3 Tectorial Membrane Mechanics and Cochlear Amplification -- 6.3.1 Local Interactions of the Tectorial Membrane with Hair Bundles -- 6.3.1.1 Quasi-Static Point Impedance Measurements -- 6.3.1.2 Dynamic Point Impedance Measurements -- 6.3.1.3 Electrokinetic Properties of the Tectorial Membrane. , 6.3.1.4 Implications of Local Tectorial Membrane Interactions with Hair Bundles -- 6.3.2 Radial Modes of Tectorial Membrane Interactions with the Hair Bundles -- 6.3.2.1 Effect of Electromechanical Force from Outer Hair Cells on Tectorial Membrane Motion -- 6.3.2.2 Radial Modes of Tectorial Membrane Motion in Mutants -- 6.3.2.3 Implications of Radial Modes of Tectorial Membrane Interactions with the Hair Bundles -- 6.3.3 Longitudinal (Wave) Modes of Tectorial Membrane Motion -- 6.3.3.1 Traveling-Wave Measurements of Isolated Tectorial Membrane -- 6.3.3.2 Traveling-Wave Measurements of Isolated Tectorial Membrane in Tectb−/− Mutants -- 6.3.3.3 Traveling-Wave Measurements of Tectorial Membrane In Vivo -- 6.3.3.4 Implications of Longitudinal Modes of Tectorial Membrane Motion -- 6.4 Summary -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References -- 7 Hair Cells and Their Synapses -- Abstract -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.1.1 Questions to Be Addressed -- 7.2 Anatomy -- 7.3 Afferent Fiber Properties -- 7.3.1 Spontaneous Activity -- 7.3.2 Stimulus-Driven Activity -- 7.4 Presynaptic Vesicle Release -- 7.4.1 Vesicle Pools -- 7.4.2 Membrane Capacitance Measurements -- 7.4.3 Multiple Release Components -- 7.5 Calcium Homeostasis -- 7.5.1 Calcium-Channel Molecular Components -- 7.5.2 Calcium Clearance -- 7.5.3 Nanodomain Versus Microdomain -- 7.5.4 Calcium-Induced Calcium Release -- 7.6 Postsynaptic Measurements -- 7.6.1 Multiquantal Release -- 7.6.2 Alternate Interpretations from Multiquantal Release -- 7.6.3 Functional Relevance of Multiquantal Release -- 7.7 Synaptic Proteins -- 7.7.1 Ribbon Proteins -- 7.7.2 Ribbon Function -- 7.7.3 Synaptic Density Proteins -- 7.7.4 Otoferlin -- 7.7.4.1 Otoferlin Genetics -- 7.7.4.2 Otoferlin in Vesicle Fusion and Trafficking -- 7.7.4.3 Otoferlin and Endocytosis -- 7.8 Summary -- Acknowledgements -- References. , 8 Afferent Coding and Efferent Control in the Normal and Impaired Cochlea.

Note: Intro -- The Human Auditory Cortex -- Series Preface -- Volume Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Introduction: Why Human Auditory Cortex? -- References -- Part I: The Methods -- Chapter 2: Architecture, Connectivity, and Transmitter Receptors of Human Auditory Cortex -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Historic Concepts and Maps of Human Auditory Cortex -- 2.3 Primary Auditory Area -- 2.3.1 Relationship Between Heschl's Gyrus and Primary Auditory Cortex -- 2.3.2 Architectonic Features of Primary Auditory Cortex -- 2.3.3 Intra-areal Compartments Within the Primary Auditory Area -- 2.4 Nonprimary Auditory Areas on the Supratemporal Plane -- 2.4.1 Cyto- and Myeloarchitecture -- 2.4.2 Putative Functional Specialization of Nonprimary Auditory Areas -- 2.5 Temporal and Parietal Convexities -- 2.6 Intersubject Variability and Probabilistic Mapping -- 2.7 Hemispheric Asymmetries -- 2.8 Connectivity of Auditory Cortex -- 2.9 Summary -- References -- Chapter 3: Invasive Research Methods -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Brief Historic Overview -- 3.3 Contemporary Research -- 3.3.1 Research Subjects -- 3.3.2 Acute Experiments -- 3.3.3 Chronic Experiments -- 3.3.3.1 Depth Electrodes -- 3.3.3.2 Surface Grid Electrodes -- 3.3.3.3 Anatomical Reconstruction -- 3.3.3.4 Stimulation and Recording -- 3.4 Experimental Paradigms -- 3.4.1 Functional Mapping by Electrophysiological Recording -- 3.4.1.1 Signal Processing -- 3.4.1.2 Coding of Stimulus Acoustic Features -- 3.4.2 Functional Connectivity -- 3.4.3 Electrical Stimulation Functional Mapping -- 3.5 Validity of Invasive Recordings -- 3.6 Summary -- References -- Chapter 4: Recording Event-Related Brain Potentials: Application to Study Auditory Perception -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Recording of Neuroelectric Brain Activity -- 4.3 Auditory Scene Analysis as the Building Block of Higher Auditory Cognition. , 4.4 Concurrent Sound Segregation -- 4.5 Sequential Sound Segregation -- 4.6 Attention, Prediction, and Auditory Scene Analysis -- 4.7 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 5: Magnetoencephalography -- 5.1 The Case for Magnetoencephalography Imaging -- 5.2 Sensing the Brain's Magnetic Fields -- 5.3 From Sensing to Imaging -- 5.3.1 Forward Models Describing Brain Activity and Measurements -- 5.3.2 Inverse Models for Reconstructing Brain Activity from Measurements -- 5.3.3 Sources of Noise in MEG -- 5.3.4 Temporal and Spatial Resolution of MEG Imaging -- 5.3.5 From Single-Subject Reconstructions to Group-Level Inference -- 5.4 Auditory Studies Using MEG -- 5.4.1 Transient Auditory Evoked Fields -- 5.4.2 Evoked Responses to Non-speech Acoustic Stimuli -- 5.4.3 Effects of Stimulus Timing and Pattern on Early Response Components -- 5.4.4 Hemispheric Lateralization of Early Auditory Responses -- 5.4.5 Mismatch Negativity Fields -- 5.4.6 Steady-State Evoked Responses -- 5.4.7 Evoked Responses to Speech Syllables -- 5.4.8 Oscillations Induced by Speech Syllables -- 5.4.9 Responses to Vowels -- 5.4.10 Mismatch Negativity to Speech Sounds -- 5.4.11 Modulation of Auditory Cortical Responses During Speaking -- 5.5 Auditory Cortical Plasticity Assessed by MEG -- 5.6 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6: Hemodynamic Imaging: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging -- 6.2.1 Basis of Technique -- 6.2.1.1 The Physiological Basis of the BOLD Signal -- 6.2.1.2 Relationship of the BOLD Signal to Neural Activity -- 6.2.2 Acquisition of Data -- 6.2.3 Spatial Localization and Resolution -- 6.2.4 Temporal Resolution -- 6.2.5 Signal Artifacts -- 6.2.6 Considerations for Auditory fMRI Experiments -- 6.2.6.1 Imaging-Related Acoustic Noise -- 6.2.6.2 Reduction of Imaging-Related Acoustic Noise. , 6.2.6.3 Image Acquisition for Auditory Experiments -- 6.3 Design of Hemodynamic Imaging Experiments -- 6.3.1 Experimental Constraints -- 6.3.2 Experimental Design Principles -- 6.3.3 Experimental Designs -- 6.3.3.1 Designs for Detection: Measuring State-Related Perceptual and Cognitive Activity -- 6.3.3.2 Designs for Detection: Measuring Transient Perceptual and Cognitive Activity -- 6.3.3.3 Designs for Estimation of the Hemodynamic Response -- 6.4 Data Analysis -- 6.4.1 Data Pre-Processing for Removal of Noise and Artifact -- 6.4.2 Transforming Data into a Standard Reference Space -- 6.4.3 General Analysis Procedures -- 6.4.4 Model-Based Analysis -- 6.4.4.1 Basis Functions for Model-Based Analysis -- 6.4.4.2 Assessment of Model-Based Statistical Significance -- 6.4.4.3 Correcting for Multiple Comparisons -- 6.4.4.4 Region of Interest Analysis -- 6.4.5 Data-Driven Analyses -- 6.4.5.1 Approaches for Data Reduction -- 6.4.5.2 Pattern Classification -- 6.4.6 Functional and Effective Connectivity -- 6.5 Summary -- References -- Part II: The Principal Computational Challenges -- Chapter 7: Coding of Basic Acoustical and Perceptual Components of Sound in Human Auditory Cortex -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.1.1 A Scheme for Parcellating Human Auditory Cortex -- 7.2 Single-Frequency Tones -- 7.2.1 Frequency Coding in Primary Auditory Cortex -- 7.2.2 Frequency Coding in Nonprimary Auditory Cortex -- 7.3 Broadband Signals -- 7.4 Modulation -- 7.4.1 Sustained and Transient Responses to Modulated Signals -- 7.4.2 Sensitivity to Slow-Rate Modulation Within Subdivisions of the Auditory Brain -- 7.4.3 A Common Representation of Modulation Rate? -- 7.5 Sound Level -- 7.5.1 Monotonic Level-Dependent Functions in Human Auditory Cortex -- 7.5.2 Sensitivity to Sound Level Within Subdivisions of the Auditory Brain. , 7.5.3 Searching for a Topographic Representation of Sound Level -- 7.5.4 A Physical or Perceptual Representation of Sound Level? -- 7.6 Pitch -- 7.6.1 Pitch Sensitivity within Subdivisions of the Auditory Brain -- 7.6.2 Pitch Onset -- 7.6.3 Listening to Melodies -- 7.7 Summary -- References -- Chapter 8: Auditory Object Analysis -- 8.1 The Problem -- 8.2 Simultaneous Grouping and Object Segregation -- 8.2.1 Object Features Based on Segregated and Grouped Elements -- 8.3 Sequential Grouping -- 8.3.1 Auditory Streaming -- 8.3.1.1 Basic Psychophysics of Auditory Streaming -- 8.3.1.2 Neural Bases for Streaming -- 8.3.2 Auditory Continuity -- 8.3.2.1 Psychophysics of Auditory Continuity -- 8.3.2.2 Neural Bases for Auditory Continuity -- 8.3.3 Regularity and Deviance in Acoustic Sequences -- 8.4 Concluding Comments: Higher-Level Mechanisms -- References -- Chapter 9: Speech Perception from a Neurophysiological Perspective -- 9.1 Introduction: Terminology and Concepts -- 9.2 Processing Speech as an Acoustic Signal -- 9.2.1 Some Critical Cues -- 9.2.2 Sensitivity of Auditory Cortex to Speech Features -- 9.2.2.1 Sensitivity to Frequency -- 9.2.2.2 Sensitivity to Time -- 9.2.2.3 Sensitivity to Spectrotemporal Modulations -- 9.2.2.4 Sparse Representations in the Auditory Cortex -- 9.3 Cortical Processing of Speech as a Continuous Stream -- 9.3.1 The Discretization Problem -- 9.3.2 Speech Analysis at Multiple Timescales -- 9.3.3 Alignment of Neuronal Excitability with Meaningful Speech Events -- 9.3.4 Multitime-Resolution Processing: Asymmetric Sampling in Time -- 9.4 Large-Scale Neurocognitive Models of Speech Processing -- 9.4.1 Emerging Consensus: Functional Neuroanatomic Models -- 9.4.2 Broadening the Empirical Scope: an Oscillation-Based Functional Model -- 9.4.3 The Role of the Auditory Cortex in Speech Production. , 9.4.4 A Predictive (Bayesian) View on Speech Processing -- 9.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 10: Cortical Processing of Music -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Pitch and Rhythm versus Speech: Building Blocks of Musical Processing -- 10.3 Neural Substrates of Basic Aspects of Pitch -- 10.4 Neural Substrates of Melodic Processing -- 10.5 Hemispheric Asymmetries of Auditory Processing -- 10.6 Dorsal-Stream Model of Auditory Processing and Its Relation to Music: Where, How, or Do? -- 10.7 Role of Training and Experience on Auditory Cortical Function and Structure -- 10.7.1 Training Effects on Auditory Cortical Activity -- 10.7.2 Assessing Cortical Function in Musicians and Nonmusicians -- 10.7.3 Effects of Musical Training on Neuroanatomy -- 10.8 Amusia -- 10.9 Summary -- References -- Chapter 11: Multisensory Role of Human Auditory Cortex -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Nonhuman Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology -- 11.2.1 Anatomical Circuits for Multisensory Convergence in Low-Level Cortices -- 11.2.2 Physiological Manifestations of Multisensory Convergence in Low-Level Cortices -- 11.2.2.1 Functional Manifestations of Feedforward Convergence -- 11.2.2.2 Functional Manifestations of Associative Convergence -- 11.2.2.3 Functional Manifestations of Extralemniscal Thalamic Inputs -- 11.2.2.4 Signature of Driving versus Modulatory Input -- 11.2.3 Constraints Imposed by Input Timing -- 11.2.3.1 Auditory Response Timing in Macaque Auditory Cortex -- 11.2.3.2 Visual and Somatosensory Response Timing in Auditory Cortex -- 11.2.3.3 Extrapolation from Monkey to Human Latencies -- 11.2.3.4 Implications of Response Timing -- 11.3 Contributions of Auditory Cortex to Multisensory Perception -- 11.3.1 Auditory Cortex Contribution to Tactile and Auditory-Tactile Perception -- 11.3.2 Auditory Cortex Contribution to Visual and Auditory-Visual Perception. , 11.3.2.1 Ventriloquism and Spatial Capture Effects.

Note: Intro -- Auditory and Vestibular Efferents -- Series Preface -- Volume Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Introduction to Efferent Systems -- 1.1 Introduction and Overview -- 1.2 Overview of the Volume -- 1.3 Comparison with Other Sensory Systems -- 1.4 Summary -- References -- Chapter 2: Anatomy of Olivocochlear Neurons -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 OC Neurons in the Brain Stem -- 2.2.1 Distributions of Lateral vs. Medial Olivocochlear Neurons -- 2.2.2 Numbers of Neurons -- 2.2.3 Axonal Characteristics -- 2.3 Peripheral Projections -- 2.3.1 Separate Terminations of LOC and MOC Neurons -- 2.3.2 Terminations of LOC Fibers -- 2.3.3 Terminations of MOC Fibers -- 2.4 Central Branches to the Cochlear and Vestibular Nuclei -- 2.5 Neurochemistry -- 2.6 Ultrastructure of Synaptic Inputs to OC Neurons -- 2.7 Neural Pathway of the Medial Olivocochlear Reflex -- 2.7.1 Direct Reflex Pathway -- 2.7.2 Modulatory Pathways -- 2.8 Summary -- References -- Chapter 3: Physiology of the Medial and Lateral Olivocochlear Systems -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 MOC Effects in the Cochlea: Overview -- 3.2.1 MOC Activation Increases CM -- 3.2.2 MOC Activation Decreases EP and Has Other Related Effects -- 3.3 Classic MOC Fast Effects in a Silent Background -- 3.3.1 Classic MOC Fast Effects on Basilar-Membrane Motion -- 3.3.2 Classic MOC Fast Effects on Otoacoustic Emissions -- 3.3.3 Classic MOC Fast Effects on IHC and AN Responses -- 3.4 Classic MOC Fast Effects in a Noisy Background -- 3.5 Nonclassic MOC Fast Effects in a Silent Background -- 3.5.1 Nonclassic MOC Fast Effects in the Basal Half of the Cochlea -- 3.5.2 Nonclassic MOC Fast Effects in the Apical Half of the Cochlea -- 3.6 MOC Slow Effects -- 3.7 MOC-Fiber Responses to Sound -- 3.8 MOC Acoustic Reflexes -- 3.8.1 Sound-Elicited MOC Effects on AN Fibers. , 3.8.2 Sound-Elicited MOC Effects on Otoacoustic Emissions -- 3.8.2.1 MOC Reflex Tuning -- 3.8.2.2 MOC Reflex Amplitude as a Function of Elicitor Bandwidth -- 3.8.2.3 MOC Reflex Laterality -- 3.8.2.4 MOC Reflex Strength -- 3.8.3 Descending Influences on MOC Acoustic Reflex Properties in Humans -- 3.9 MOC Function in Hearing -- 3.9.1 MOC Activity Changes the Dynamic Range of Hearing and Thereby Increases the Discriminability of Transients in Background Noise -- 3.9.2 MOC Activity Helps to Protect Against Acoustic Trauma -- 3.9.3 Possible Roles of MOC Activity in Attention and Learning -- 3.10 LOC Physiology and Function -- 3.10.1 LOC Effects in the Cochlea -- 3.10.2 LOC Response to Sound -- 3.10.3 LOC Function in Hearing -- 3.11 Summary and Future Directions -- References -- Chapter 4: Pharmacology and Neurochemistry of Olivocochlear Efferents -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.1.1 Overview of Biochemical and Biophysical Steps in Efferent Activation -- 4.1.2 Historical Perspective of Issues in the Pharmacology of the Olivocochlear Efferents -- 4.2 Cholinergic Medial Efferent Transmission -- 4.2.1 The Medial Efferent Synapse -- 4.2.2 Events at the Efferent Terminal -- 4.2.3 ACh Metabolism -- 4.2.4 Presynaptic Cholinergic Receptors -- 4.2.5 Synaptic Facilitation of Efferent Effects -- 4.2.6 Postsynaptic Cholinergic Receptor -- 4.2.6.1 Overview -- 4.2.6.2 Pharmacology of Medial Efferent Transmission -- 4.2.6.3 Pharmacology of KCa Channels -- 4.2.6.4 Medial Efferents: In Vivo vs. In Vitro Findings -- 4.3 Other Efferent Neurotransmitters -- 4.3.1 Overview -- 4.3.2 Lateral Efferent Origins -- 4.3.3 Acetylcholine -- 4.3.4 Opioid Peptides -- 4.3.5 Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP) -- 4.3.6 GABA -- 4.3.7 Serotonin (5-Hydroxytryptamine) -- 4.3.8 Glycine -- 4.3.9 Dopamine -- 4.4 Summary -- References -- Chapter 5: Cholinergic Inhibition of Hair Cells. , 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Historical Background -- 5.3 Cellular Physiology -- 5.3.1 Intracellular Recordings from Hair Cells of the Fish Lateral Line -- 5.3.2 Details of Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials and Effect on Receptor Potentials in Turtle Hair Cells -- 5.3.3 Application of ACh to Isolated OHCs -- 5.3.4 Tight-Seal Recordings in the Mammalian Organ of Corti -- 5.3.4.1 Responses to ACh in IHCs and OHCs -- 5.3.4.2 Spontaneous and Evoked Synaptic Currents in IHCs and OHCs -- 5.3.4.3 Cholinergic Inhibition of IHC Action Potentials -- 5.4 Summary of "Two-Channel Hypothesis vs. Second-Messenger Mechanisms" -- 5.5 Determination of Molecular Components -- 5.5.1 Cloning of a9 -- 5.5.2 Cloning of a10 -- 5.6 Genetically Modified Mouse Models -- 5.6.1 a9 and a10 Knockouts -- 5.6.2 a9 and a10 Overexpressors -- 5.6.3 SK2 Knockout Mice -- 5.6.4 a9 Knock-in Mice -- 5.7 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6: The Efferent Vestibular System -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Afferents and Hair Cells -- 6.2.1 Afferent Discharge Properties -- 6.2.2 Hair Cells and Their Innervation -- 6.2.3 Afferent Morphology and Physiology -- 6.3 Efferents: A Historical Perspective -- 6.4 Neuroanatomical Organization of the EVS -- 6.4.1 Location of Cell Bodies and Their Dendritic Morphology -- 6.4.2 Axonal Pathways to the Periphery -- 6.4.3 Peripheral Branching Patterns -- 6.4.4 Synaptic Ultrastructure of Efferent Terminals -- 6.5 Efferent Neurotransmitters and Receptors -- 6.5.1 Acetylcholine -- 6.5.2 Adenosine 5'-Triphosphate -- 6.5.3 Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide -- 6.5.4 Opioid Peptides -- 6.5.5 g-Aminobutyric Acid -- 6.5.6 Nitric Oxide -- 6.6 Afferent Responses to Electrical Activation of the EVS -- 6.6.1 Mammals -- 6.6.2 Oyster Toadfish (Opsanus tau) -- 6.6.3 Anurans (Frogs and Toads, Rana and Bufo Species) -- 6.6.4 Red-Eared Turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans). , 6.7 Sites of Efferent Actions: Hair Cells or Afferents -- 6.8 Pharmacology of Efferent Neurotransmission -- 6.8.1 Hair-Cell Inhibition -- 6.8.2 Hair-Cell Excitation -- 6.8.3 Fast Afferent Excitation -- 6.8.4 Slow Afferent Excitation -- 6.9 Efferent Modulation of Afferent Responses to Natural Stimulation -- 6.10 Functional Studies of the EVS -- 6.10.1 Response of EVS Neurons to Natural Stimulation -- 6.10.2 Efferent-Mediated Modulation of Afferent Discharge -- 6.10.3 Possible Functions of the EVS -- 6.11 Summary -- References -- Chapter 7: Development of the Inner Ear Efferent System -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Central Development -- 7.3 Defects of Efferent Development Revealed Through Targeted Mutations -- 7.4 Neurochemical Development of Auditory Efferents -- 7.4.1 Cholinergic Development -- 7.5 Peripheral Development -- 7.6 Onset of Neurotransmitter-Related Expression Within Cochlea -- 7.7 Acetylcholine Receptors on Hair Cells -- 7.8 Nicotinic Synapse Formation and Maturation of ACh Receptors -- 7.9 Maturation of Efferent Connections and Efferent-Induced Hair Cell Responses -- 7.10 Efferent Connections to Vestibular hair Cells -- 7.11 Conclusion and Outlook -- References -- Chapter 8: Evolution of the Octavolateral Efferent System -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Anatomical Layout and Neurochemistry of the Efferent System -- 8.2.1 The Origin of Octavolateral Efferents -- 8.2.2 The Plesiomorphic Condition as Seen in Fish -- 8.2.2.1 A Small Number of Efferent Neurons Innervates a Large Number of Both Lateral-Line and Inner-Ear Hair Cells -- 8.2.2.2 Are There Any Subpopulations of Efferents? -- 8.2.2.3 Bilateral Distribution of Efferent Somata and Dendrites -- 8.2.2.4 Efferent Transmitters and Neuropeptides -- 8.2.3 The Most Derived Case: Separate Subsystems of Vestibular and Auditory Efferents of High Complexity in Mammals. , 8.2.4 An Intriguing Case with Many Similarities to Mammals: The Archosaurs (Birds and Crocodilians) -- 8.2.4.1 Separation of Auditory and Vestibular Efferents -- 8.2.4.2 Bilateral Distribution in Archosaurs (Crossed and Uncrossed Efferents) -- 8.2.4.3 Evidence for Subpopulations of Auditory Efferents -- 8.2.4.4 Tonotopic Distribution Along the Avian Basilar Papilla -- 8.2.4.5 Efferent Transmitters and Neuropeptides -- 8.2.5 When and Why Did Vestibular and Auditory Efferents Separate? -- 8.2.5.1 Amphibians -- 8.2.5.2 Turtles -- 8.2.5.3 The Lepidosauromorphs (Tuataras, Lizards, Snakes, and Amphisbaenids) -- 8.3 Function of Efferent Innervation to Hair Cells -- 8.3.1 Transferring the Efferents' Neurochemical Heritage to Hair Cells -- 8.3.1.1 Cholinergic Inhibition -- 8.3.1.2 CGRP -- 8.3.2 Adding New Levels of Sophistication to the Auditory Efferents -- 8.3.2.1 Specializing Together with the Hair Cells: Modulating the Cochlear Amplifier -- 8.3.2.2 Modulating Afferents Instead of Hair Cells: A Mammalian Speciality? -- 8.3.2.3 Branching Out to Nonsensory Cell Types -- 8.3.3 Still an Enigma: Natural Conditions of Efferent Activity -- 8.3.3.1 Protection from Predictable Damage -- 8.3.3.2 Improving Signal Detection -- 8.3.3.3 A Role for Efferents in Auditory Development? -- 8.4 Conclusions and Outlook -- 8.4.1 A Plausible Story of Efferent Evolution -- 8.4.2 Interesting Open Questions -- References -- Chapter 9: Central Descending Auditory Pathways -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Overview of Central Auditory Structures and the Ascending Pathways -- 9.3 Brief Historical View of the Descending System -- 9.4 Divergent Descending Projections from Specific Auditory Regions -- 9.4.1 Projections from the Superior Olivary Complex -- 9.4.2 Projections from the Nuclei of the Lateral Lemniscus -- 9.4.3 Projections from the IC. , 9.4.4 Projections from the Thalamus and Nearby Areas.

Note: Intro -- Acoustical Society of America -- Series Preface -- Preface 1992 -- Volume Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- 1 Vertebrate Diversity in a Sensory System: The Fossil Record of Otic Evolution -- Abstract -- 1.1 General Introduction -- 1.2 General Structure of Inner Ear, Middle Ear, Otic Capsule, Hyomandibula, and Stapes: Terminology -- 1.3 Non-Osteichthyans: Stem Gnathostomes and Chondrichthyans -- 1.4 The Bony Vertebrate Groups: Review of Chapters -- 1.5 Summary -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References -- 2 Actinopterygians: The Ray-Finned Fishes-An Explosion of Diversity -- Abstract -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Bony Fish Skull Anatomy: An Overview -- 2.1.2 The Earliest Bony Fishes -- 2.2 The Fossil Record of Actinopterygian Hearing -- 2.3 Devonian Actinopterygians -- 2.4 "Paleopterygians" -- 2.5 Chondrosteans -- 2.6 Holosteans -- 2.6.1 Parasemionotids -- 2.6.2 Halecomorphs -- 2.6.3 Ginglymodians -- 2.7 Teleosts -- 2.7.1 Stem Teleosts -- 2.7.2 Crown Teleosts I: Innovations in Hearing -- 2.7.3 Crown Teleosts II: The Otolith Fossil Record -- 2.8 Summary -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References -- 3 Sarcopterygians: From Lobe-Finned Fishes to the Tetrapod Stem Group -- Abstract -- 3.1 Introduction to the Sarcopterygians -- 3.2 Actinistians and Onychodonts -- 3.2.1 Actinistians -- 3.2.2 Onychodonts -- 3.3 Dipnomorphs: Dipnoans and Porolepiforms -- 3.3.1 Stem Dipnoans and Porolepiforms -- 3.3.2 Dipnoans -- 3.4 Tetrapodomorph Fishes -- 3.4.1 Introduction to Tetrapodomorphs -- 3.4.2 Osteolepis, Medoevia, and Gogonasus -- 3.4.3 Megalichthyids -- 3.4.4 Tristichopterids -- 3.4.5 Elpistostege, Panderichthys, and Tiktaalik -- 3.5 Summary -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References -- 4 Early Tetrapods: Experimenting with Form and Function -- Abstract -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Devonian Stem Tetrapods. , 4.2.1 Acanthostega -- 4.2.2 Ichthyostega -- 4.2.3 Ventastega -- 4.3 Carboniferous Stem Tetrapods -- 4.3.1 Whatcheeriids -- 4.3.2 Baphetids -- 4.3.3 Greererpeton -- 4.3.4 Embolomeres -- 4.4 Later Carboniferous and Permian Tetrapods -- 4.4.1 Seymouriamorphs -- 4.4.2 Diadectomorphs -- 4.4.3 "Lepospondyls" -- 4.4.3.1 Recumbirostran "Microsaurs" -- 4.4.3.2 Aïstopods -- 4.5 Earliest Amniotes -- 4.6 Early Developments in the Tetrapod Hearing System -- 4.7 Summary -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References -- 5 Non-Mammalian Synapsids: The Beginning of the Mammal Line -- Abstract -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 The Pelycosaur Grade -- 5.3 Basal Therapsids -- 5.3.1 Biarmosuchia -- 5.3.2 Gorgonopsia -- 5.3.3 Dicynodontia -- 5.3.4 Therocephalia -- 5.4 Non-Mammalian Cynodonts -- 5.4.1 Procynosuchus -- 5.4.2 Thrinaxodon -- 5.4.3 Eucynodontia -- 5.5 Summary -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References -- 6 Evolution of the Middle and Inner Ears of Mammaliaforms: The Approach to Mammals -- Abstract -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Middle Ear Evolution -- 6.2.1 Middle Ear Evolution in Mammaliaforms -- 6.2.2 Ectotympanic Structure and Function -- 6.2.3 Malleus Structure and Function -- 6.2.4 Structure of the Incus -- 6.2.5 Structure of the Stapes -- 6.2.6 Independent Evolution of Definitive Middle Ear in Monotremes -- 6.2.7 Independent Evolution of Definitive Midde Ear in Theriimorph Mammals -- 6.3 Inner Ear Evolution -- 6.3.1 Inner Ear Bony Housing -- 6.3.2 Cochlear Canals of Mammaliaforms -- 6.3.3 Ancestral Morphotype of Crown Mammalia -- 6.3.4 Vestibular Features of Mammaliaforms -- 6.4 Functional Evolution of Mammaliaform Ears -- 6.4.1 Routes of Sound Conduction to Inner Ear -- 6.4.2 External Ear Pinna -- 6.5 Summary and Remarks -- References -- 7 The Ear of Mammals: From Monotremes to Humans -- Abstract -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.1.1 Outer Ear. , 7.1.2 Middle Ear -- 7.1.3 Inner Ear -- 7.2 Monotremata and Early Mammalia -- 7.3 Theriimorpha -- 7.3.1 Allotheria (Multituberculata and Gondwanatheria) -- 7.4 Cladotheria -- 7.4.1 Theria (Marsupials and Placentals) -- 7.5 Placentalia -- 7.5.1 Archaic Ungulates ("Condylarthra") -- 7.5.2 Cetacea (Whales and Dolphins) -- 7.5.3 Chiroptera (Bats) -- 7.5.4 Proboscidea (Elephants) -- 7.5.5 Human Evolution -- 7.6 Summary -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 8 Basal Reptilians, Marine Diapsids, and Turtles: The Flowering of Reptile Diversity -- Abstract -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Basal Reptilians -- 8.2.1 Captorhinidae -- 8.2.2 Parareptilia -- 8.2.2.1 Mesosaurs -- 8.2.2.2 Millerettids -- 8.2.2.3 Ankyramorphs: Bolosaurids, Pareiasauromorphs, and Procolophonoids -- 8.2.3 Basal Diapsida -- 8.3 Marine Diapsid Reptiles -- 8.3.1 Ichthyosauromorpha -- 8.3.2 Thalattosauriformes -- 8.3.3 Sauropterygia: Placodontiformes and Eosauropterygia -- 8.3.4 Testudinata: Chelonians and Their Kin -- 8.4 Early Reptilian Evolutionary History -- 8.5 Summary -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 9 The Lepidosaurian Ear: Variations on a Theme -- Abstract -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 The Fossil Record of Lepidosauria -- 9.3 The Lepidosaurian Ear -- 9.4 Osteological Correlates of Ear Function in Lepidosaurs -- 9.4.1 Middle Ear -- 9.4.2 Inner Ear -- 9.5 The Fossil Record of Ear Evolution in Lepidosauria -- 9.5.1 Overview -- 9.5.2 Stem Lepidosaurs -- 9.5.3 Rhynchocephalia -- 9.5.4 General Squamates -- 9.5.5 Burrowing Squamates -- 9.5.6 Marine Squamates, the Mosasaurs -- 9.5.6.1 Mosasaur Middle Ears -- 9.5.6.2 The Mosasaur Inner Ear -- 9.5.7 Snakes -- 9.5.7.1 Terrestrial Fossil Snakes -- 9.5.7.2 Marine Limbed Snakes -- 9.6 Discussion -- 9.7 Summary -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 10 Archosaurs and Their Kin: The Ruling Reptiles -- Abstract -- 10.1 Introduction. , 10.2 Stem Archosaurs: Prolacerta, Euparkeria, Choristodera, and Phytosauria -- 10.3 Pseudosuchia: The Crocodile Family Tree -- 10.4 Avemetatarsalia: Pterosauria, Dinosauria, and Avialae -- 10.4.1 Pterosauria: The Flying Reptiles -- 10.4.2 Dinosauria: Masters of the Mesozoic -- 10.4.2.1 Ornithischia: The Bird-hipped Dinosaurs -- 10.4.2.2 Saurischia: The Lizard-Hipped Dinosaurs -- Sauropodomorpha -- Theropoda -- 10.4.3 Avialae: Birds and Their Closest Relatives -- 10.5 Morphological Evolution of the Otic Region in Archosauromorpha -- 10.5.1 Ossification of the Otic Capsule and Its Significance -- 10.5.2 The Development of Impedance-Matching Hearing -- 10.5.3 Evolution of the Inner Ear and Its Implications -- 10.5.4 The Importance of Bone Pneumatization -- 10.5.5 Formation of the Opisthotic Loop -- 10.5.6 Flight and the Interpretation of the Floccular Lobe -- 10.5.7 Sound Production and Communication -- 10.5.8 Acquisition of Aquatic Hearing -- 10.5.9 The Crocodylian Braincase -- 10.6 Summary -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 11 Amphibia: A Case of Diversity and Convergence in the Auditory Region -- Abstract -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Temnospondyls -- 11.2.1 Edopoids -- 11.2.2 Dendrerpetidae and Balanerpeton -- 11.2.3 Dvinosaurians -- 11.2.4 Eryopiforms -- 11.2.5 Stereospondyls -- 11.2.6 Dissorophoids -- 11.3 Lissamphibia: The Modern Amphibians -- 11.3.1 Anura: Frogs -- 11.3.2 Triadobatrachus -- 11.3.3 Caudata: Salamanders and Newts -- 11.3.4 Gymnophiona: Caecilians or Limbless Amphibians -- 11.3.5 Eocaecilia -- 11.3.6 Albanerpetontids -- 11.4 The Evolutionary Sequence of Amphibian Ear Types: Making Sense of a Puzzle -- 11.4.1 The Tetrapod Ear and the Primitive Condition for Lissamphibians -- 11.4.2 The Batrachian Ear -- 11.4.3 How and Why Was the Tympanic System Lost? -- 11.5 Summary -- Compliance with Ethics Requirements -- References.

Note: Intro -- Dedication -- Acoustical Society of America -- Series Preface -- Preface 1992 -- Volume Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Auditory System Development: A Tribute to Edwin W Rubel -- 1.1 Contributions to Science -- 1.1.1 Early Career -- 1.1.2 Auditory Brainstem -- 1.1.3 Dendritic Regulation -- 1.1.4 Cochlea Frequency-Place Map -- 1.1.5 Hair Cell Regeneration -- 1.1.6 Prevention of Hearing Loss -- 1.1.7 Scientific Community -- 1.2 Overview of Chapters -- 1.2.1 Development of the Mechanosensory Periphery -- 1.2.2 Auditory Brainstem Development -- 1.2.3 Development of Auditory Perception -- 1.3 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2: Development and Regeneration of Sensory Hair Cells -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Hair Cell Development -- 2.2.1 Sensorineural Development in the Inner Ear -- 2.2.2 Initial Differentiation of Hair Cells -- 2.2.2.1 Atoh1 Is Necessary and Sufficient for Hair Cell Formation -- 2.2.2.2 Regulation of Hair Cell and Supporting Cell Fates Through Notch Signaling -- 2.2.2.3 Onset of Atoh1 Expression -- 2.2.3 Hair Cell Development Beyond Atoh1 -- 2.2.4 Summary of Development -- 2.3 Hair Cell Regeneration -- 2.3.1 Overview -- 2.3.2 Hair Cell Injury, Death, and Repair -- 2.3.3 Hair Cell Regeneration in Nonmammalian Vertebrates -- 2.3.3.1 Hair Cell Progenitors in Nonmammalian Vertebrates: Identity and Behavior -- 2.3.3.2 Morphological and Functional Maturation of Regenerated Hair Cells in Nonmammalian Vertebrates -- 2.3.4 Hair Cell Regeneration in Mammals: The Cochlea -- 2.3.5 Hair Cell Regeneration in Mammals: Vestibular Organs -- 2.3.6 Molecular Control of Hair Cell Regeneration in Nonmammals -- 2.3.6.1 Regulators of Supporting Cell Division in Nonmammals -- 2.3.6.2 Regulators of Hair Cell Differentiation in Nonmammals -- 2.3.6.3 Factors Limiting Hair Cell Regeneration in Mammals. , 2.3.7 Future Considerations for Hair Cell Regeneration -- 2.3.8 Summary -- References -- Chapter 3: The Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Zebrafish Lateral Line Development -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Early Development of the Lateral Line -- 3.2.1 Formation of Lateral Line Placodes -- 3.2.2 Molecular Mechanisms of Lateral Line Placode Formation -- 3.3 Development of the Posterior Lateral Line System -- 3.3.1 Primordia Migration Forms the Zebrafish Lateral Line -- 3.3.2 Organization of the pLLP -- 3.3.3 Progenitor Cell Identity and Maintenance -- 3.3.4 FGF Signaling and Proto-NM Formation -- 3.3.5 Regulation of NM Deposition and Spacing -- 3.3.6 Directional Migration -- 3.3.7 Hair Cell Specification and Differentiation -- 3.4 Mechanosensory Hair Cells of the Lateral Line -- 3.4.1 Development and Physiology -- 3.5 Posterior Lateral Line Innervation -- 3.5.1 Pioneer Axon Extension and Pathfinding -- 3.5.2 Peripheral Topography and Central Somatotopy of the pLL -- 3.5.3 The Unexplored Role of Efferents -- 3.5.4 Innervation of Planar Polarized Hair Cells -- 3.6 Postembryonic Lateral Line Development in the Zebrafish -- 3.7 Summary -- References -- Chapter 4: Glutamate Signaling in the Auditory Brainstem -- 4.1 Introduction to Glutamate Signaling -- 4.2 Synaptic Excitation -- 4.2.1 Presynaptic Release -- 4.2.2 Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors -- 4.2.3 Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors -- 4.2.4 Calcium Signaling -- 4.3 Development of Synaptic Excitation -- 4.3.1 Morphology and Physiology -- 4.3.2 Cotransmission: Excitation Mediated by Inhibitory Neurotransmitters -- 4.4 Activity-Dependent Regulation of Glutamate Signaling -- 4.4.1 Short-Term Synaptic Plasticity -- 4.4.2 Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity -- 4.4.3 Pathophysiology and Glutamate Signaling -- 4.5 Neuromodulation of Glutamate Signaling -- 4.5.1 Homosynaptic Modulation. , 4.5.2 Heterosynaptic Modulation -- 4.6 Summary -- References -- Chapter 5: Development and Function of Inhibitory Circuitry in the Avian Auditory Brainstem -- 5.1 Introduction: The Elegant Circuit -- 5.1.1 The Excitatory Pathways of the ITD Processing Circuit -- 5.1.2 Sources of Inhibition -- 5.2 Embryonic Origins and Development of SON Innervation -- 5.3 Inhibitory Synaptic Physiology: Slow, Depolarizing, and Potent -- 5.3.1 GABAergic Input to NM and NL Is Depolarizing -- 5.3.2 An Unexpected Role for Glycine in the Avian Auditory Brainstem -- 5.3.3 A Role for Phase-Locked Inhibition in Birds? -- 5.4 Binaural Processing in Balance: The SON Circuit from a Systems View -- 5.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 6: Tuning Neuronal Potassium Channels to the Auditory Environment -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 What Is So Special About Kv3 Potassium Channels? -- 6.3 Brainstem Circuits Underlying Localization of Sounds Have High Levels of Kv3.1 and Kv3.3 Channels -- 6.3.1 Bushy Cells of the Anteroventral Cochlear Nucleus -- 6.3.2 Principal Neurons of the MNTB -- 6.3.3 Other Auditory Brainstem Nuclei -- 6.4 Too Much Kv3.1 Current Produces Errors in Timing -- 6.5 The Properties of Brainstem Neurons Are Plastic -- 6.5.1 Casein Kinase 2 Adjusts the Voltage Dependence of Kv3.1 Current in MNTB Neurons -- 6.5.2 Phosphorylation of Kv3.1 Channels Is Developmentally Regulated -- 6.5.3 Phosphorylation of Kv3.3 Channel Subunits -- 6.6 Long-Term Modulation of Kv3.1 Currents in MNTB Neurons -- 6.6.1 Activity Regulates the Tonotopic Gradient of Kv3.1 Channels -- 6.6.2 Rapid Synthesis of Kv3.1 Channels in Response to Auditory Stimulation Is Regulated by the Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein -- 6.6.3 Regulation of Kv3.1 Channels by Changes in Transcription -- 6.7 Changes in the Tonotopic Gradient of Kv3 Channels Contribute to the Processing of Auditory Information. , 6.8 Unresolved Questions About Channel Modulation in Auditory Neurons -- 6.8.1 Is Channel Modulation Local or Global? -- 6.8.2 Can Accuracy of Transmission Be Altered by Pharmacological Agents? -- 6.9 How Is Modulation of Kv3 Channels Coordinated with Changes in Other Potassium Channels? -- 6.9.1 Kv1 Family Channels -- 6.9.2 Kv2.2 Channels in the Initial Segment -- 6.9.3 Kv11 Channels -- 6.9.4 Sodium-Activated Potassium Channels -- 6.10 Do Changes in Excitability of Brainstem Neurons Contribute to Auditory Learning? -- 6.11 Summary -- References -- Chapter 7: Ontogeny of Human Auditory System Function -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Development of Conductive Elements -- 7.2.1 External Ear -- 7.2.2 Middle Ear -- 7.2.3 Influences on Auditory Function -- 7.2.3.1 Absolute Sensitivity -- 7.2.3.2 Spatial Hearing -- 7.3 Differentiation of the Human Inner Ear -- 7.3.1 Morphology -- 7.3.2 Physiology -- 7.3.2.1 Otoacoustic Emissions -- 7.3.2.2 Evoked Neural Responses -- 7.3.2.3 Behavioral Responses -- 7.3.3 Development of the Place Principle -- 7.4 Development of Neural Response Properties -- 7.4.1 Frequency Resolution -- 7.4.2 Intensity Representation -- 7.4.2.1 Absolute Sensitivity -- 7.4.2.2 Intensity Discrimination -- 7.4.2.3 Loudness -- 7.4.3 Timbre and Spectral Shape Discrimination -- 7.4.4 Temporal Processing -- 7.4.4.1 Temporal Resolution -- 7.4.4.2 Pitch -- 7.4.4.3 Binaural Hearing -- 7.4.5 Auditory Scene Analysis -- 7.5 Afferent Influences on Auditory System Ontogeny -- 7.5.1 Effects of Exposure to Speech -- 7.5.2 Congenital Hearing Loss Treated with Cochlear Implants -- 7.6 Summary -- References -- Chapter 8: Early Experience and Auditory Development in Songbirds -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Song Behavior -- 8.3 Basic Hearing -- 8.4 Early Song Experience and Behavior -- 8.4.1 Song Production -- 8.4.2 Song Perception. , 8.5 Early Experience and Auditory Coding -- 8.5.1 Auditory Midbrain -- 8.5.1.1 Auditory Midbrain Function -- 8.5.1.2 Early Experience and Auditory Midbrain Function -- 8.5.2 Auditory Cortex -- 8.5.2.1 Auditory Cortex Organization -- 8.5.2.2 Primary Auditory Cortex -- 8.5.2.3 Early Experience and Primary Auditory Cortex Function -- 8.5.2.4 Secondary Cortex -- 8.5.2.5 Early Experience and Secondary Cortex Function -- 8.6 Summary -- References.

Note: Intro -- Series Preface -- Volume Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Unique Contributions from Comparative Auditory Research -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 What Is Comparative Auditory Research? -- 1.2 What Are the Unique Roles of Comparative Auditory Research? -- 2 The Themes of this Volume -- 2.1 Hair Cells as Transducers and Amplifiers -- 2.2 The Evolution of Hair Cell Polarity -- 2.3 Auditory Oddities: Instructive Exceptions to the Rule -- 2.4 New Insights into the Evolution of Hearing -- 2.5 Neuroethology of Hearing -- 3 Summary -- References -- Transduction and Amplification in the Ear: Insights from Insects -- 1 Introduction: Auditory Transduction and Insects -- 2 The Cellular Basis of Insect Mechanotransduction -- 3 A Minimal Model of Insect (Auditory) Mechanotransduction (I): General Functional Modules -- 4 Predictions from a Minimal Model -- 5 Auditory Transduction in Drosophila melanogaster: Testing and Validating the Model´s Predictions -- 6 Transduction, Adaptation, Amplification: The Universal Tripod of Hearing -- 7 A Minimal Model of Insect Auditory Mechanotransduction (II): Molecules of the Drosophila Ear -- 7.1 Reception and Transmission of Stimuli: NompA -- 7.2 Coupling: TilB, DCX-EMAP, and a Role for Microtubular Dynein Arms in Mechanotransduction -- 7.3 Transduction: NompC, Putative Transducer, and Putative Gating Spring -- 7.4 Signal Processing: Downstream Modifier Channels -- 7.5 Transformation: Para Sodium Channels and Their Auxiliary Subunits -- 8 Auditory Transduction and Acoustic Signaling in Insects: The Role of Mechanotransducers in the Tuning of Species-Specific Co... -- 9 Summary and Outlook -- References -- Roles for Prestin in Harnessing the Basilar Membrane to the Organ of Corti -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Functional Organization of the Cochlear Partition. , 3 Prestin´s Role in Reciprocally Coupling BM Vibrations to the Organ of Corti -- 4 Evolution of Prestin -- 4.1 The Electromechanical Process Evolved from the Ancestral Transport Mechanism -- 4.2 The Evolutionary Changes Resulted in Prestin Providing Force but Not Displacement -- 5 Prestin and Auditory Frequency Range -- 5.1 Prestin Charge Density, Distribution, and Force Production by OHCs Does Not Differ from Cochlear Base to Apex -- 5.2 The Molecular Sequence of the Prestin Electromotility Motor Does Not Correlate with Low- and High-Frequency Hearing -- 6 Isotonic versus Isometric Force Generation by OHCs and Morphological Specializations in the Cochlea of High- and Low-Frequen... -- 6.1 Mechanical Influence of Deiters´ Cells on OHC Electromotility -- 6.2 Organ of Corti of Echolocating Bats -- 6.3 Organ of Corti of the Blind Mole Rat -- 7 Cochlear Efferents and the Prestin Motor -- 7.1 The ``Fast´´Effect -- 7.2 The ``Slow´´Effect -- 8 Summary -- References -- Origin and Development of Hair Cell Orientation in the Inner Ear -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Hair Cell Polarity and Hair Cell Orientation Are Specified in Three Steps -- 3 An Overview of Hair Cell Orientation Patterns in Different Inner Ear Epithelia -- 3.1 Hair Cell Orientation Patterns in Vestibular Organs -- 3.2 Hair Cell Orientation in Dedicated Auditory Epithelia -- 4 Ontogenetic and Phylogenetic Origin of Hair Cell Orientation Patterns -- 4.1 Ontogenetic Differentiation of Sensory Epithelia -- 4.2 Subdivision and Segregation of Sensory Epithelia-a Link to Evolutionary Pathways -- 5 Control of PCP-Potential Molecular Mechanisms -- 5.1 Lessons from Insects -- 5.2 PCP Proteins -- 5.3 Propagation of Polarity from Cell to Cell -- 5.4 Morphogen Gradients as Potential ``Global Polarity´´ Cues -- 5.5 A Model for the Control of PCP in Auditory Epithelia. , 5.6 Intercellular PCP Protein Interaction in Sensory Epithelia of the Inner Ear -- 6 Robustness of PCP Control -- 6.1 The ``Two-Opposing Wnt Gradient´´ Model -- 6.2 Advantage of Two Different Wnt Morphogens Acting on PCP from Either Side -- 6.3 A Potential Second PCP Signaling Center Between IHCs and OHCs in Mammals -- 7 Challenges to PCP Concepts-Inner Ear Maculae and Hair Cell Reorientation in Birds -- 7.1 Inner Ear Maculae -- 7.2 Avian Basilar Papilla-Hair Cell Reorientation -- 8 Summary and Outlook -- References -- The Remarkable Ears of Geckos and Pygopods -- 1 An Introduction to Geckos -- 2 A Brief Introduction to Lizard Basilar Papillae -- 3 The Unique Reverse Tonotopicity of the Gecko Basilar Papilla -- 3.1 The Morphological Segments of the Gecko Basilar Papilla -- 3.2 Tonotopic Organization of the Gecko Basilar Papilla -- 3.3 How Did Geckos End Up with a Reversed Tonotopicity? -- 4 Hair Cells without Innervation -- 4.1 Preaxial Hair Cells Are Not Innervated -- 4.2 Possible Functions of Pre- and Postaxial Papillar Areas -- 5 Pygopod Geckos Specialize in High-Frequency Vocalizations and Matching Hearing -- 5.1 Natural History of Pygopod Geckos -- 5.2 The High-Frequency Sensitivity of the Pygopod Genus Delma -- 5.3 Mechanisms of High-Frequency Hearing in Delma -- 5.4 Matched Vocalizations in Pygopods? -- 6 Summary and Outlook -- References -- Ultrasound Detection in Fishes and Frogs: Discovery and Mechanisms -- 1 Introduction -- 2 US Detection in Fish -- 2.1 Historical Overview of US Detection in Fish -- 2.2 Why Detect US? -- 2.3 On the Mechanism of US Detection in Alosinae -- 2.3.1 The Fish Lateral Line -- 2.3.2 The Fish Inner Ear -- 2.3.3 The Ear of Clupeids -- 2.3.4 The Utricle as the US Detector -- 2.3.5 The Lateral Line as the US Detector -- 2.4 The Evolution of US Detection -- 3 Ultrasonic Communication in Frogs. , 3.1 Historical Overview of the Discovery of Ultra-high-Frequency Sensitivity of Frogs -- 3.2 Evolutionary and Environmental Constraints and Selection Pressures on Ultrasonic Signaling -- 3.3 Case Studies -- 3.3.1 Odorrana tormota (formerly Rana tormota and Amolops tormotus) -- 3.3.2 Odorrana graminea (formerly Odorrana livida) -- 3.3.3 Huia cavitympanum -- 3.4 Mechanism of US Detection in Frogs-Still Unknown -- 4 Summary and Outlook: Comparative Insights from the Study of High-Frequency Hearing in Fishes and Frogs -- References -- The Malleable Middle Ear: An Underappreciated Player in the Evolution of Hearing in Vertebrates -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Functional Anatomy of Middle Ears -- 2.1 Area Ratio of the Eardrum -- 2.2 Lever Ratio -- 2.3 Curved Membrane Lever -- 3 The Middle Ear and Nontympanic Hearing -- 4 Evolutionary History of the Middle Ear Apparatus -- 5 Ontogeny of the Middle Ear Apparatus -- 6 The Middle Ear and Underwater Hearing -- 7 Ultrasonic Hearing -- 8 Hearing Underground -- 9 Directional Hearing -- 10 Reduction of the Middle Ear -- 11 Summary -- References -- Auditory Brain Stem Processing in Reptiles and Amphibians: Roles of Coupled Ears -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Basal Patterns Among the Tetrapods -- 1.2 Amphibians -- 1.3 Sauropsids or Reptilia -- 2 Anurans -- 2.1 The Anuran Auditory Pathway -- 2.2 Processing of Directional Information -- 2.3 Processing of Communication Sounds -- 3 Lizards -- 3.1 Ascending Auditory Pathways -- 3.1.1 First-Order Nuclei and the Nucleus Laminaris -- 3.1.2 Midbrain -- 3.2 Localization and Coupled Ears -- 4 Snakes -- 4.1 Ascending Auditory Pathways -- 5 Turtles and Tortoises (Testudines) -- 5.1 Ascending Auditory Pathways -- 5.1.1 First-Order Nuclei and the Nucleus Laminaris -- 5.1.2 Midbrain -- 5.2 Localization and Specialization -- 6 Crocodilians -- 6.1 Ascending Auditory Pathways. , 6.2 Localization -- 7 Birds -- 7.1 Ascending Auditory Pathways -- 7.2 Localization -- 8 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Modern Imaging Techniques as a Window to Prehistoric Auditory Worlds -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Slicing the Rock: Computer Tomographic Techniques and the ``Virtual Ear´´ -- 3 Ear Morphology in Fossil Vertebrates -- 3.1 Nontetrapod Vertebrates -- 3.2 Nonamniote Tetrapods -- 3.3 Amniota -- 3.3.1 Sauropsid Amniotes -- 3.3.2 Synapsid Amniotes -- Ear Structures in Premammalian Synapsids -- Ear Structures in Mesozoic Mammaliaforms -- 4 Conclusions and Outlook -- References -- Emu and Kiwi: The Ear and Hearing in Paleognathous Birds -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Phylogeny of Paleognathous Birds -- 3 Auditory Neuroethology of Paleognathous Birds -- 3.1 The Large Ratites Have Very Low-Frequency Calls -- 3.2 Tinamous and Kiwi Vocalize at Higher Frequencies -- 3.3 What Is the Ancestral Condition? -- 4 The Basilar Papilla and Its Innervation in Emu and Kiwi -- 4.1 Ancestral Features Suggested by Paleognathous Birds -- 4.1.1 An Early Stage of Functional Hair Cell Differentiation -- Hair Cell Shape Is Heavily Biased by Frequency and Thus Not a Good Indicator of THC-SHC Differentiation -- Loss of Afferent Innervation Probably Happened Early in the Process of THC-SHC Differentiation -- Full Differentiation of Efferent Subpopulations Probably Followed Later -- Differentiation of Hair Cell Physiology Remains Open -- 4.1.2 The Unique Hair-Bundle Orientation Pattern of Birds Is an Ancestral Feature -- 4.1.3 A High Density of Hair Cells? -- 4.2 Species-Specific Features Related to Different Frequency Emphases -- 4.2.1 Hair Bundle Morphology as an Indicator of Frequency Specializations -- Emu, and Probably Rhea, Overrepresent Low Frequencies -- Kiwi Are Predicted to Overrepresent High Frequencies. , 4.2.2 Afferent Innervation Density as an Indicator of Frequency Emphasis.

Note: Intro -- Series Preface -- Preface 1992 -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: A Brief History of SHAR -- 1.1 SHAR Background -- 1.2 Volume 50 -- 1.3 A Brief Overview of SHAR -- 1.4 Our History -- 1.5 Some SHAR Statistics -- 1.6 Working with Springer -- 1.7 The Future -- 1.8 Dedication -- Chapter 2: Structures, Mechanisms, and Energetics in Temporal Processing -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 The Cochlea -- 2.2.1 Pre-1992 Active Hearing and Its Battery -- 2.2.2 A Twenty-Year Perspective as Viewed from the OHC -- 2.2.2.1 Cochlear Amplification for High-Frequency Hearing and Temporal Processing -- 2.2.2.2 The Membrane-Based Lateral Wall Motor -- 2.2.2.3 Full Expression of OHC Electromotility Requires Prestin and Small Intracellular Anions -- 2.2.2.4 Membrane Material Properties Matter -- 2.2.2.5 Turgor Pressure and Membrane Poration -- 2.2.2.6 OHC Stereocilia Bundle and Cochlear Amplification -- 2.3 Central Processing Mechanisms -- 2.3.1 Pre-1992-Establishing the Temporal Limits of Central Processing -- 2.3.2 A 20-Year Perspective as Viewed from the Cochlear Nucleus -- 2.3.2.1 Precision in the Auditory Nerve -- 2.3.2.2 Presynaptic Mechanisms in the Cochlear Nucleus -- 2.3.2.3 Postsynaptic Mechanisms in Cochlear Nucleus Bushy Cells -- 2.3.2.4 Postsynaptic Mechanisms in the MSO -- 2.3.2.5 General Roles for Low-Voltage-Activated K + Channels in the Auditory Brain Stem -- 2.3.2.6 Other Exceptional Timing Functions in Auditory Pathways -- 2.3.2.7 The Metabolic Costs of Mechanisms Enabling High Temporal Precision -- 2.4 Synthesis and Summary -- 2.5 Future Directions -- 2.5.1 Stereocilia -- 2.5.2 OHC Soma -- 2.5.3 IHC -- 2.5.4 Auditory Nerve -- 2.5.5 Bushy Cells -- References -- Chapter 3: Human Auditory Cortex: In Search of the Flying Dutchman -- 3.1 Introduction: Beginnings -- 3.2 Tools of the Trade -- 3.3 Enter the Modern Era -- 3.4 Been There, Done That. , 3.5 Convergence -- 3.6 Transitioning -- 3.7 End Game -- 3.8 Looking Ahead -- 3.9 The Last Word -- References -- Chapter 4: From Cajal to the Connectome: Building a Neuroanatomical Framework for Understanding the Auditory System -- 4.1 Neuroanatomy by Any Other Name… -- 4.2 Neuroanatomy of the Auditory System -- 4.2.1 Some Beginnings -- 4.2.2 The Knowledge Base Grows Apace -- 4.2.3 The Future Is Here -- 4.3 Very Large Databases -- 4.3.1 Finding Better Ways to Share Neuroanatomical Findings -- 4.3.1.1 The Frustration -- 4.3.1.2 A Solution: "Microscopy" Online -- 4.3.1.3 Not So Fast! (A Brief Digression) -- 4.4 The Central Nervous System: Now Appearing in 3-D! -- 4.4.1 An Exemplary Model -- 4.4.2 Auditory Nuclei in the Gerbil -- 4.5 Online Databases Will Repay the Efforts Involved to Build Them -- 4.5.1 Ways Are Needed to Facilitate Localization of Physiological Recording Sites -- 4.5.2 Community Organization -- 4.6 In Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 5: Recording from Hair Cells -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 The Seventies and Eighties -- 5.1.2 The Nineties and Oughts -- 5.2 Mechanoelectrical Transduction -- 5.2.1 Adaptation Is Amplification -- 5.2.2 Transduction Channels: How, Where, What? -- 5.3 Receptor Potentials Are Unexpectedly Diverse -- 5.4 Hair Cell-to-Afferent Transmission Has Surprising Properties -- 5.5 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 6: Three Decades of Tinnitus-Related Research -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Before SHAR -- 6.3 After SHAR, Volume 1 -- 6.4 The Past Decade: Mechanisms for Tinnitus Without Hearing Loss -- 6.5 Perspectives: Typology of Tinnitus and Use-Dependent Plasticity -- 6.5.1 Noise-Induced, Hearing-Loss-Related Tinnitus -- 6.5.2 Somatic-Induced Tinnitus Without Hearing Loss -- 6.5.3 Tinnitus Without Hearing Loss -- 6.5.4 Stress-Related Tinnitus -- 6.5.5 Tinnitus and Depression. , 6.6 Tinnitus as a Neural Network Problem -- References -- Chapter 7: The Sense of Hearing in Fishes -- 7.1 The Early Years -- 7.2 Princeton and Hawaii -- 7.3 To Loyola University Chicago -- 7.3.1 Research Program -- 7.3.1.1 Time and Frequency Domain Processing -- 7.3.1.2 Spike Rate Suppression -- 7.3.1.3 Ripple Noise Processing -- 7.3.1.4 Stimulus Generalization -- 7.3.2 Auditory Scene Analysis and What Fish Listen to -- 7.3.3 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8: A Quarter-Century's Perspective on a Psychoacoustical Approach to Loudness -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Definitions, Approaches, and the Importance of Terminology -- 8.3 The Complex Nature of Sound Perception -- 8.4 Approaches to Measuring Loudness -- 8.5 Loudness Work at Northeastern University -- 8.5.1 Investigations of Individual Differences in Loudness Functions Among Normal Listeners and Listeners with Different Types of Hearing Losses -- 8.5.2 Investigations and Models of the Relationship Between Temporal and Spectral Integration of Loudness and the Loudness Function -- 8.5.3 Investigations of How Context Affects Loudness -- 8.5.4 Loudness in the Laboratory and in Ecologically Valid Environments -- 8.6 Looking Toward the Future -- References -- Chapter 9: Nonsyndromic Deafness: It Ain't Necessarily So -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Nonsyndromic Deafness -- 9.3 Rhetoric and Reality -- 9.3.1 X-Linked Nonsyndromic Deafness DFN1 Is Deafness-Dystonia-Optic Neuropathy Syndrome -- 9.3.2 Nonsyndromic Deafness DFNB82 Is Chudley-McCullough Syndrome -- 9.3.3 Perrault Syndrome Not Nonsyndromic Deafness (DFNB81) -- 9.4 Allelic Mutations Can Cause Nonsyndromic or Syndromic Deafness -- 9.5 Summary -- References. , Chapter 10: Evolving Mechanosensory Hair Cells to Hearing Organs by Altering Genes and Their Expression: The Molecular and Cellular Basis of Inner Ear and Auditory Organ Evolution and Development -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 From Single Cells to Organs: The Evolution of Hair Cells -- 10.3 From Hair Cells to Ears, Lateral Line Neuromasts, and Vitalli's Organ -- 10.4 From Vestibular Ears to Tetrapod Hearing Organs: Toward the Molecular Basis of Organ of Corti Evolution -- 10.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 11: The Implications of Discharge Regularity: My Forty-Year Peek into the Vestibular System -- 11.1 Background -- 11.2 My Introduction to the Vestibular System -- 11.3 Discharge Characteristics of Vestibular Nerve Fibers -- 11.3.1 Directional Properties -- 11.3.2 Resting Discharge -- 11.3.3 Response Dynamics -- 11.3.4 Response Diversity and Discharge Regularity -- 11.4 Discharge Regularity and Galvanic Sensitivity -- 11.5 Discharge Regularity and Innervation Patterns -- 11.6 Discharge Regularity and Depolarization Sensitivity -- 11.7 Discharge Regularity and Information Transmission -- 11.8 A Case History: SCCs Can Respond to Linear Forces -- 11.9 Current and Future Directions -- References -- Chapter 12: Aging, Hearing Loss, and Speech Recognition: Stop Shouting, I Can't Understand You -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Historical Perspective -- 12.2.1 Epidemiology -- 12.2.2 Models of Presbycusis -- 12.2.3 Speech Understanding Performance -- 12.3 Key Findings in Recent Years -- 12.3.1 Epidemiology -- 12.3.2 Models of Presbycusis -- 12.3.3 Factors Contributing to Speech Understanding Problems -- 12.3.4 Training to Improve Speech Understanding -- 12.4 Current and Future Directions -- 12.4.1 Demographics -- 12.4.2 Speech Recognition Performance for Real-World Degraded Signals -- 12.4.3 Auditory-Visual Speech Perception -- 12.4.4 Cognitive Load. , 12.4.5 New Directions for Hearing Aid Signal Processing -- 12.4.6 New Models of Adaptation and Training -- 12.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 13: Cochlear Mechanics, Otoacoustic Emissions, and Medial Olivocochlear Efferents: Twenty Years of Advances and Controversies Along with Areas Ripe for New Work -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Cochlear Mechanics -- 13.2.1 Active Mechanisms and "Cochlear Amplification" -- 13.2.2 What Is the Motor for Mammalian Cochlear Amplification? -- 13.2.3 Cochlear Macromechanics: The Apex Is Different from the Base -- 13.2.4 Cochlear Micromechanics -- 13.2.5 The Mechanical Drive to IHC Stereocilia -- 13.2.6 The Mechanisms by Which MOC Efferents Change Cochlear Mechanics -- 13.3 Otoacoustic Emissions -- 13.3.1 Understanding the Generation of OAEs -- 13.3.2 Using OAEs to Reveal Cochlear Properties -- 13.4 Measuring MOC Effects Using Changes in OAEs -- 13.5 Medial Olivocochlear Efferent Function -- 13.5.1 MOC Effects in Humans -- 13.5.2 The Role of MOC Efferents in Hearing -- 13.5.2.1 MOC Activity Makes It Easier to Hear Signals in Noise -- 13.5.2.2 MOC Activity and Selective Attention -- 13.5.2.3 MOC Activity Reduces Acoustic Trauma -- 13.6 Final Thoughts -- References -- Chapter 14: Examining Fish in the Sea: A European Perspective on Fish Hearing Experiments -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Earlier State of Knowledge -- 14.3 Moving into the Sea: The First Steps -- 14.4 The Acoustic Properties of the Swim Bladder -- 14.5 The Salmon and Its Kind -- 14.6 Masking -- 14.7 Directional Hearing -- 14.8 Current State of Knowledge -- References -- Chapter 15: The Behavioral Study of Mammalian Hearing -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 The Evolution of Animal Psychophysics -- 15.2.1 The Early Years -- 15.2.2 The Past 20 Years -- 15.3 Comparative Mammalian Hearing -- 15.3.1 The Early Years -- 15.3.2 The Past 20 Years. , 15.3.2.1 High-Frequency Hearing.

Note: Intro -- Dedication -- Series Preface -- Preface 1992 -- Volume Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Hearing and Hormones: Paying Homage to the Comparative Approach -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Turning Points in Hormonal Investigations: 1970s and 1980s -- 1.3 Convergence of Neuroethology and Behavioral Neuroendocrinology -- 1.4 Hearing and Hormones: A Phylogenetic Perspective -- 1.4.1 Hearing and Hormones in Teleost Fishes -- 1.4.2 Hearing and Hormones in Amphibians -- 1.4.3 Hearing and Hormones in Songbirds -- 1.4.4 Hearing and Hormones in Mammals -- 1.4.4.1 Non-Humans -- 1.4.4.2 Humans -- 1.5 Concluding Comments -- References -- Chapter 2: Hormone-Dependent Plasticity of Auditory Systems in Fishes -- 2.1 Introduction: Why Study Hormones and Hearing in Fish? -- 2.2 Peripheral and Central Auditory Systems -- 2.3 Sound-Producing Fishes -- 2.3.1 Sonic and Vocal Fish -- 2.3.2 Vocal Central Pattern Generator (CPG) -- 2.4 Seasonal Changes in Hearing Sensitivity -- 2.4.1 Auditory Plasticity in Midshipman Fish -- 2.4.2 Hearing, Hormones, and Changing Reproductive State in Cichlids -- 2.5 Peripheral Studies of Hormone Modulation -- 2.5.1 Steroid-Mediated Plasticity of Fish Auditory Systems -- 2.5.1.1 Hormone Targets of the Peripheral Auditory System -- 2.5.1.2 Hormone Targets of the Central Auditory System -- 2.6 Hormone Modulation of Central Auditory Physiology -- 2.7 Catecholamines and Hearing -- 2.7.1 Catecholaminergic Innervation of the Auditory System -- 2.7.2 Catecholaminergic Innervation of the Auditory System Varies with Reproductive State -- 2.8 Summary -- References -- Chapter 3: Effects of Steroid Hormones on Hearing and Communication in Frogs -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.1.1 Organization of the Frog Auditory System -- 3.1.2 Steroid Receptor Localization Indicates Areas of Hormone Influence -- 3.2 Sex Differences in Hearing. , 3.3 Seasonal Differences in Hearing -- 3.4 Changes in Gonadal Steroid Levels Influence Central Auditory System Responses -- 3.5 Hearing Calls Changes the Hormonal State of Males and Females -- 3.6 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4: Modulation of Peripheral and Central Auditory Processing by Estrogens in Birds -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 The Brain as a Source and Target of Estrogens -- 4.3 Overview of the Avian Auditory System -- 4.3.1 Organization of the Songbird Auditory Pathway -- 4.3.2 Estrogen Receptor and Aromatase Expression in the Songbird Auditory System -- 4.4 Seasonal Plasticity of Auditory Function -- 4.4.1 Seasonal Plasticity of Peripheral Auditory Physiology -- 4.4.2 Seasonal Plasticity of Central Auditory Physiology -- 4.4.3 Seasonal Plasticity of Immediate Early Gene Expression -- 4.5 Acute Estrogenic Effects in the Central Auditory Pathway -- 4.5.1 Microdialysis Approaches -- 4.5.2 Acute Effects of Estrogens on Central Auditory Physiology -- 4.6 Summary -- References -- Chapter 5: Hormones and the Incentive Salience of Bird Song -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Overview of Incentive Salience -- 5.1.2 The Incentive Salience of Bird Song -- 5.2 Hormonal Modulation of Auditory Responses -- 5.2.1 Overview of the Avian Auditory System -- 5.2.2 Auditory Egr-1 Responses Depend on Endocrine State -- 5.2.3 Direct Actions of Estradiol in the Auditory Pathway -- 5.3 Mechanisms of Hormone-Dependent Auditory Responses: Neuromodulatory Regulation -- 5.3.1 A Model of Estrogen-Dependent Neuromodulation -- 5.3.2 Catecholaminergic Activity -- 5.3.3 Serotonergic Activity -- 5.3.4 Oxytocin Activity -- 5.4 Hormone-Dependent Responses in the Reward Pathway -- 5.5 Mechanisms Underlying Selective Responses to Song in Males -- 5.5.1 Testosterone-Dependent Selectivity of Behavioral and Auditory Responses. , 5.5.2 Testosterone-Dependent Changes in Monoaminergic Activity -- 5.5.3 Song-Induced Responses in the Reward Pathway in Males -- 5.6 Future Directions: Incentive Salience and Song Learning -- 5.6.1 Modeling the Development of Social Reward -- 5.6.2 Development of Egr-1 Responses and Neuromodulatory Systems -- 5.7 Summary -- References -- Chapter 6: Hormone-Dependent and Experience-­Dependent Auditory Plasticity for Social Communication -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Sensory Contexts and Hormones -- 6.2.1 Glucocorticoids -- 6.2.2 Vasopressin and Oxytocin -- 6.2.3 Serotonin -- 6.2.4 Norepinephrine -- 6.2.5 Estrogen -- 6.3 Reproductive Model of Sensory Plasticity -- 6.3.1 Maternal Mouse Communication Model -- 6.3.2 Absence of Long-Term Cortical Map Plasticity in the Maternal Model -- 6.3.3 Long-Term Excitatory Plasticity for Call Categorization and Discrimination -- 6.3.4 Long-Term Inhibitory Plasticity for Call Detection -- 6.3.5 Sensory Plasticity While Becoming Maternal -- 6.4 Relevance to Human Maternal Hearing -- 6.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 7: Thyroid Hormone and the Mammalian Auditory System -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Thyroid Hormone -- 7.3 Thyroid Hormone Receptors -- 7.4 Deiodination and Local Control of Cochlear Development -- 7.5 Thyroid Hormone Transporters and Ligand Transfer -- 7.6 Thyroid Hormone Functions in the Auditory System -- 7.7 Thyroid Hormone and the Cochlea -- 7.7.1 Regression of the Greater Epithelial Ridge -- 7.7.2 Remodeling the Organ of Corti -- 7.7.3 Tectorial Membrane -- 7.7.4 Cochlear Function -- 7.8 Thyroid Hormone and the Middle Ear -- 7.9 Thyroid Hormone and Central Auditory Pathways -- 7.10 Hearing Loss in Thyroid Disorders -- 7.10.1 Iodine Deficiency -- 7.10.2 Congenital Hypothyroidism -- 7.10.3 Syndrome of Resistance to Thyroid Hormone -- 7.10.4 Other Genetic Defects in the Response to Thyroid Hormone. , 7.10.5 Other Thyroid Disorders -- 7.10.6 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals -- 7.10.7 Pendred Syndrome -- 7.11 Summary -- References -- Chapter 8: Hormone Replacement Therapy and Its Effects on Human Hearing -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Estrogen Can Modulate Sensory Nervous System Activity -- 8.3 Progesterone Can Be Detrimental to Hearing in Aging Women -- 8.4 Testosterone and Reduced Auditory Sensitivity -- 8.5 Aldosterone Is Linked to Hearing Health -- 8.6 Other Hormone Therapies Can Improve Audition -- 8.7 Summary and Conclusions -- References.

Note: Intro -- Dedication -- Series Preface -- Preface 1992 -- Volume Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: A History of the Study of Echolocation -- 1.1 Spallanzani to Griffin -- 1.2 Early Lab and Field Experiments -- 1.2.1 Experiments in the Griffin Lab (1956-1965) -- 1.2.2 Other Advances in the Mid-1960s -- 1.2.3 Uli Schnitzler and Doppler Shift Compensation -- 1.2.4 Enter Jim Simmons -- 1.2.5 1957-1980: Studies on Adaptations of the Auditory Nervous System for Echolocation -- 1.3 Taking Up the Tradition of Studying Bats in the Field -- 1.4 The Echolocation Calls of Bats -- 1.5 Overview of This Volume -- References -- Chapter 2: Phylogeny, Genes, and Hearing: Implications for the Evolution of Echolocation in Bats -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 The Molecular Phylogenetic Position of Chiroptera Within Eutheria -- 2.1.2 Molecular Phylogenetic Relationships Within Chiroptera -- 2.1.3 Yinpterochiroptera and Yangochiroptera -- 2.2 Auditory Specializations for Echolocation -- 2.2.1 The Molecular Basis of Hearing -- 2.2.2 Studying the Molecular Basis of Hearing and Echolocation in Bats -- 2.2.2.1 Candidate Gene Approaches -- 2.2.2.2 Genomics Approaches -- 2.2.2.3 Future Approaches -- 2.3 Are Sensory Trade-Offs Associated with the Evolution of Echolocation? -- 2.3.1 Olfaction -- 2.3.2 Taste -- 2.3.3 Vision -- 2.4 Summary -- References -- Chapter 3: Ultrasound Production, Emission, and Reception -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Sound Production by the Bat Larynx -- 3.2.1 Morphology of the Bat Larynx -- 3.2.2 Sound Production Mechanisms -- 3.2.3 Non-Linear Phenomena in Sound Production: Echolocation Versus Communication Calls ("Yodeling") -- 3.3 Neural Control of Sound Production in Bats -- 3.3.1 Neural Control of the Bat Larynx -- 3.3.2 Brain Stem Circuits and Mechanisms -- 3.3.3 Higher Order Brain Structures Involved in Vocal Control. , 3.3.3.1 Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) -- 3.3.3.2 Basal Ganglia -- 3.4 Sensory Feedback for the Control of Echolocation Calls -- 3.4.1 Auditory Feedback -- 3.4.1.1 Vocal-Respiratory Coupling and Somatosensory Feedback -- 3.4.1.2 Vocalization and Flying -- 3.5 Static and Dynamic Diversity in Sound-Diffracting Structures -- 3.5.1 Static Complexity -- 3.5.2 Dynamic Complexity -- 3.6 Evidence for a Functional Role for Dynamic Complexity -- 3.6.1 Dedicated Specializations -- 3.6.2 Prevalence Within the Biosonar System -- 3.6.3 Prevalence Across Species -- 3.7 Lingual Echolocation in Rousettus -- References -- Chapter 4: To Scream or to Listen? Prey Detection and Discrimination in Animal-Eating Bats -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Evolution of Echolocation -- 4.3 Aerial Hawking -- 4.3.1 Echolocating Bats and Insects with Bat-Detecting Ears -- 4.3.2 Case Study: Vespertilionid Bats and Sound-Producing Tiger Moths -- 4.4 Substrate Gleaning -- 4.4.1 Gleaning Bats Use Prey-Generated Cues -- 4.4.2 Gleaning Bats That Eavesdrop on Signaling Prey -- 4.4.3 Case Study: The Fringe-Lipped Bat -- 4.4.4 Auditory and Behavioral Adaptations to Eavesdropping -- 4.4.5 Sensory Niche Partitioning in Gleaning Bats -- 4.4.6 Challenges in Relying on the Use of Prey-Emitted Acoustic Cues -- 4.4.7 Case Study: The Common Big-Eared Bat Defies Categories -- 4.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 5: Roles of Acoustic Social Communication in the Lives of Bats -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Social Calls -- 5.2.1 Mate Attraction -- 5.2.2 Antagonistic Interactions -- 5.2.3 Locating Conspecifics -- 5.2.3.1 Mother-Pup Recognition -- 5.2.3.2 Group Formation and Cohesion -- 5.2.4 Distress -- 5.3 The Communicative Role of Echolocation -- 5.3.1 Activity Information -- 5.3.2 Personal Information -- 5.3.3 Interspecific Differences in Echolocation: Evidence for Acoustic Communication?. , 5.4 Future Directions -- 5.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 6: Guild Structure and Niche Differentiation in Echolocating Bats -- 6.1 Diversity in Bats -- 6.2 Sensory and Motor Tasks of Foraging Bats -- 6.2.1 Spatial Orientation -- 6.2.2 Biotope Recognition -- 6.2.3 Food Finding -- 6.3 The Masking Problem -- 6.4 Habitat Types and Foraging Modes -- 6.4.1 Definitions -- 6.4.2 Borders Between Habitats -- 6.5 Bat Guilds -- 6.5.1 Definition of Guilds -- 6.5.1.1 Open Space Aerial Foragers -- 6.5.1.2 Edge Space Aerial Foragers -- 6.5.1.3 Edge Space Trawling Foragers -- 6.5.1.4 Narrow Space Flutter-Detecting Foragers -- 6.5.1.5 Narrow Space Active-Gleaning Foragers -- 6.5.1.6 Narrow Space Passive-Gleaning Foragers -- 6.5.1.7 Narrow Space Passive-/Active-Gleaning Foragers -- 6.5.2 Approach Behavior -- 6.5.3 Assigning Bat Species to Guilds -- 6.6 Niche Differentiation -- 6.6.1 Niche Dimensions and Niche Spaces -- 6.6.2 Niche Space of Aerial-Hawking and Trawling Bats -- 6.6.3 Niche Space of Flutter-Detecting Bats -- 6.6.4 Niche Space of Gleaning Bats -- 6.6.4.1 Animalivorous Gleaning Bats -- 6.6.4.2 Phytophagous Gleaning Bats -- 6.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 7: Neural Coding of Signal Duration and Complex Acoustic Objects -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Neural Coding of Signal Duration in the Central Auditory System -- 7.2.1 Signal Duration Is Important for Echolocation -- 7.3 Duration-Tuned Neurons in Bats -- 7.3.1 Types of Duration-Tuned Neurons -- 7.3.2 Duration-Tuned Neuron Response Properties -- 7.4 Conceptual and Computational Mechanisms of Duration Tuning -- 7.4.1 Coincidence Detection Mechanism -- 7.4.2 Anti-Coincidence Mechanism -- 7.4.3 Multiple Mechanisms of Duration Tuning -- 7.5 Duration Tuning and Echolocation -- 7.6 Neural Coding of Complex Acoustic Features in the Bat Auditory System -- 7.6.1 Perception of Complex Auditory Objects. , 7.6.2 Passive Hearing and Communication Sounds -- 7.7 Neural Coding of Complex Echo-Acoustic Objects -- 7.7.1 Neural Coding of Object Spatial Extent -- 7.7.2 Object Normalization -- 7.7.3 Neural Coding of Stochastic Echoes -- 7.8 Neural Coding of Species-Specific Vocalizations -- 7.8.1 Non-Primary Auditory Cortex -- 7.8.2 Primary Auditory Cortex -- 7.8.3 Hemispheric Asymmetries and Sex-Specific Differences -- 7.8.4 Coding of Emotional Content of Communication Calls in the Amygdala -- 7.9 Summary -- References -- Chapter 8: The Neural Processing of Frequency Modulations in the Auditory System of Bats -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.1.1 Some General Comments on Echolocation -- 8.1.2 Themes of the Chapter -- 8.2 The Vocal Repertoire of Bats -- 8.3 Responses in the Colliculus Are Selective -- 8.4 Spectrotemporal Receptive Fields Reveal the Importance of Sideband Inhibition -- 8.4.1 Spectrotemporal Receptive Fields Explain FM Directional and Velocity Selectivities -- 8.4.2 Predictive Spectrotemporal Receptive Fields Found in Minority of IC Neurons -- 8.4.3 Most Neurons Had More Than One Spectrotemporal Filter -- 8.5 The Importance of Frequency Modulations for Call Selectivity -- 8.6 Directional Preferences for FMs Measured with In-Vivo Whole Cell Recordings -- 8.7 The Role of Spike Timing for Creating Directional Selectivity -- 8.7.1 FM Directional Selectivity Formed by Timing Disparities of Excitation and Inhibition Does Not Apply to All IC Cells -- 8.7.2 The Timing of Excitation and Inhibition Explored with Whole Cell Recordings -- 8.8 Combination Sensitivity -- 8.8.1 Combination Sensitive Neurons Are Created in the IC -- 8.8.2 Combination Sensitivity also Imparts Selectivity for Communication Calls in the IC -- 8.8.3 Combination Sensitivity also Occurs in the Auditory Systems of Other Animals -- 8.9 Summary and Concluding Thoughts -- References. , Chapter 9: Behavioral and Physiological Bases for Doppler Shift Compensation by Echolocating Bats -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 General Principles of Doppler Shift Compensation -- 9.2.1 Doppler Effect -- 9.2.2 Ecology of Doppler Shift Compensation -- 9.2.2.1 High Duty Cycle Echolocation in Bats -- 9.2.2.2 Discovery of Doppler Shift Compensation -- 9.2.2.3 Discovery of the Auditory Fovea -- 9.2.2.4 Impact of Doppler Shift Compensation on High Duty Cycle Echolocation -- 9.3 Adaptations for Doppler Shift Compensation in the Auditory Receiver -- 9.3.1 Auditory Fovea in the Cochlea of High Duty Cycle Echolocating Bats -- 9.3.2 Auditory Fovea in the Higher Auditory Nuclei -- 9.3.3 The Processing of Flutter Information in the Auditory Pathway -- 9.4 Ethology of Doppler Shift Compensation -- 9.4.1 Acoustical Measurements of Doppler Shift Compensation Behaviors -- 9.4.2 Telemetry Recordings of Bats During Flight -- 9.4.3 Flutter Detection by Doppler Shift Compensation -- 9.4.4 Effect of Echo Intensity on Doppler Shift Compensation -- 9.4.5 Jamming Avoidance Behavior of High Duty Cycle Echolocating Bats -- 9.5 Evolution of Doppler Shift Compensation -- 9.5.1 Doppler Shift Compensation in the Bat Phylogenetic Tree -- 9.5.2 Doppler Shift Compensation: CF and HDC in Bat Echolocation -- 9.5.3 Ecological and Behavioral Factors in the Evolution of Doppler Shift Compensation -- 9.6 Summary -- References -- Chapter 10: Perceiving the World Through Echolocation and Vision -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Essential Details About Echolocation Related to Spatial Perception -- 10.3 Spatial Perception in Vision and Echolocation -- 10.4 Inferences from Behavioral Data on 3-D Object Position in Vision and Echolocation -- 10.5 Stroboscopic Nature of Echolocation -- 10.6 Scene Analysis by Vision and Echolocation -- 10.7 Summary and Conclusions -- References. , Chapter 11: Perspectives and Challenges for Future Research in Bat Hearing.