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  • 1
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    Reproduction in the squid, Illex illecebrosus : first observations in captivity and implications for the life cycle (1980)
    Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization
    In:  Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science (6). pp. 7-13.
    Details
    Publication Date: 2020-07-16
    Description: Precocious maturation of male and female I. illecebrosus , induced in the laboratory in about 50 days, was followed by mating and spawning and yielded jelly-like egg masses up to 1 m in diameter containing 100,000 eggs. Fully mature males contained several hundred spermatophores, generally more than were implanted in the mantle of a female. The jelly released by the nidamental glands appears to trigger sperm release from implanted spermatophores. More than one egg mass was produced by single females and eggs remained in the ovary when the females died after spawning. The egg masses were neutrally buoyant and tended to drift with the weak current present in the pool. Larvae hatched in 6-7 days after spawning at about 13 C with mantle length of 1.1 mm. Eight days after hatching (maximum survival time), they had a mantle length of 1.25 mm and were similar to, but younger than, specimens found in plankton collections in late winter. All stages in the life cycle of I. illecebrosus have now been characterized, and the available information is consistent with the hypothesis of a 1-year life cycle with spawning possibly occurring in February. Major gaps in knowledge at present are the spawning time and location. Identification of egg masses and larvae may be useful in determining the time of spawning but the capture of mated females may be the best indicator of spawning sites.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 2
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    Respiratory Metabolism and Swimming Performance of the Squid, Loligo opalescens (1982)
    NRC
    In:  Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 39 (4). pp. 580-587.
    Details
    Publication Date: 2020-07-24
    Description: Maximum sustainable and burst speed, standard and active metabolic rates, and metabolic scope at temperatures from 7.5 to 17.5 °C were determined for the squid, Loligo opalescens, with a Brett tunnel respirometer. A comparison with sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) of similar size at 15 °C indicates that squid have higher standard and active rates (254 and 862 mL O2∙kg−1∙h−1), but have sustainable speeds half those of salmon (0.36 m∙s−1). This confirms the low efficiency of jet-propelled swimming, and the resultant high cost of transport (12.5 J∙kg−1∙m−1; nearly 5 times that of salmon) raises interesting questions about how and why squid make large-scale vertical and horizontal migrations and the tactics they use to compete with fish that are both their predators and prey. Burst speeds after several maximal jets do not appear to be significantly greater than the peak speed after a single jet suggesting squid must depend primarily on maneuverability and high acceleration rather than high speed. A low capacity for accumulating an oxygen debt (73 mL O2∙kg−1) confirms predictions based on biochemical evidence. This debt is approximately equal to the energy needed to rephosphorylate muscle phosphagens
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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    DOI: 10.1139/f82-082
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  • 3
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    Embryonic development of the squid, Illex illecebrosus, and effect of temperature on development rates (1982)
    NAFO
    In:  Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science, 3 . pp. 41-45.
    Details
    Publication Date: 2020-06-18
    Description: Development stages for artificially fertilized and naturally spawned eggs of Illex illecebrosus were observed and a staging scheme proposed which relates to earlier studies on naturally spawned eggs of Illex coindetii and artificially fertilized eggs of Todarodes pacificus. Photographs and descriptions of stages provide a reference for embryonic development of small ommastrephid eggs and an aid to the identification of egg masses of the species in nature, an essential step in understanding its life cycle. Embryonic development in Illex illecebrosus fails at temperatures below 12.5°C. and the development rate at 21°C is nearly twice that at 12.5°C. This temperature requirement restricts the spatial and temporal distribution of spawning in this squid, and temperature-related development rates allow prediction of the age of egg masses found in nature in water masses of a particular temperature.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 4
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    Predatory behaviour of squid (Illex illecebrosus) feeding on surface swarms of euphausiids (1985)
    Canadian Science Publishing
    In:  Canadian Journal of Zoology, 63 (1). pp. 15-17.
    Details
    Publication Date: 2020-07-24
    Description: Squid (lllex illecebrosus) were observed and filmed feeding on daytime surface swarms of the euphausiid, Meganyctiphanes norvegien. in the Bay of Fundy. The squid captured euphausiids by tentacular attack, a predatory behaviour described previously for this and other species of squid feeding on mobile prey. This method of prédation is quite different from the only other documented account of squid feeding on euphausiid surface swarms.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
    Format: text
    DOI: 10.1139/z85-003
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  • 5
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    Validation and Application of an Ageing Technique for Short-finned Squid (IIlex illecebrosus) (1985)
    NAFO Scientific Council
    In:  Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Science, 6 . pp. 107-116.
    Details
    Publication Date: 2020-07-21
    Description: A technique has been developed which simplifies the ageing of short-finned squid (IIlex illecebrosus) through microstructural examination of the statotiths. The spatial pattern of growth increments was studied with the use of light and scanning electron microscopy. Daily growth increments in statoliths were validated by employing chemical "time" markers (strontium and tetracycline) and laboratory-reared animals of known age. Increment formation continued through periods of food deprivation and minimal temperature fluctuations.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 6
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    Laboratory rearing of rhynchoteuthions of the ommastrephid squid Illex illecebrosus (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) (1985)
    Laboratoire Arago
    In:  Vie et Milieu, 35 (3/4). pp. 243-246.
    Details
    Publication Date: 2020-04-28
    Description: A methodology is presented for obtaining egg masses from captive populations of the ommastrephid squid Illex illecebrosus and for incubating them intact under controlled conditions. Survival of rhynchoteuthion larvae for 9 days after hatching is the best reported to date, though it has not yet been possible to induce feeding. Factors critical to rearing success are discussed, e.g. tank size, stocking density, turbulence, light levels and photoperiod, as well as food type and concentration.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 7
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    The forces acting on swimming squid (1988)
    Company of Biologists
    In:  Journal of Experimental Biology, 137 . pp. 421-442.
    Details
    Publication Date: 2020-07-24
    Description: 1. Analysis of cine films and intramantle pressure records for squid Loligo opalescens Berry swimming in a tunnel respirometer provided estimates of all the forces acting in the horizontal and vertical planes for swimming speeds from 0.1 to 0.5 ms−1. 2. Different speeds used different gaits; fin thrust was only important below 0.2 ms−1, ‘anaerobic’ circular muscles were recruited only at supracritical speeds, and hyperinflation caused by contraction of the radial muscle was not seen in steady swimming. 3. The extent, rate and frequency of contraction of the obliquely striated circular muscles varied little with speed, and jet thrust was matched to speed primarily by active pressure control through adjustments in the size of the funnel orifice. 4. Hydrodynamic lift production to compensate for negative buoyancy during enforced horizontal swimming in the tunnel required 30–90% of the total force over the speed range studied and appears less efficient than direct use of jet thrust. This suggests a new rationale for ‘climb-and-glide’ swimming which reduces previous estimates of the gross cost of transport for squid under natural conditions by at least 35%, with no loss of speed. 5. The cost of accelerating water into the mantle of a squid moving at high speed appears to have been underestimated in previous studies. A simulation of a series of escape jets predicts a maximum speed of 8 body lengths s−1 (1.4ms−1), reached after only two jets, because of the high deceleration during refilling.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 8
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    Can rhynchoteuthions suspension feed? (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) (1985)
    Laboratoire Arago
    In:  Vie et Milieu, 35 (3/4). pp. 267-271.
    Details
    Publication Date: 2020-04-28
    Description: The unique rhynchoteuthions of the ommastrephid squids are the smallest decapodan cephalopod hatchlings and have never been successfully reared. Based on anatomical and behavioural observations a mechanism of suspension feeding is proposed which depends on direct interception and inertial impaction on the mucus coated body surface. Mucus is transferred to the mouth area by ciliary motion and by observed cleaning behaviours. Suspension feeding is suggested to be a supplement to raptorial feeding but may be a critical "bridge" between small yolk reserves and the minimum development required for effective predation. Loss of ciliature through contact with vessel walls may prevent feeding in culture.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 9
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    Limitations on locomotor performance in squid (1988)
    American Physiological Society
    In:  Journal of Applied Physiology, 64 (1). pp. 128-134.
    Details
    Publication Date: 2020-07-27
    Description: An empirical equation relating O2 consumption (power input) to pressure production during jet-propelled swimming in the squid (Illex illecebrosus) is compared with hydrodynamic estimates of the pressure-flow power output also calculated from pressure data. Resulting estimates of efficiency and stress indicate that the circularly arranged obliquely striated muscles in squid mantle produce maximum tensions about half those of vertebrate cross-striated muscle, that "anaerobic" fibers contribute to aerobic swimming, and that peak pressure production requires an instantaneous power output higher than is thought possible for muscle. Radial muscles probably contribute additional energy via elastic storage in circular collagen fibers. Although higher rates of aerobic power consumption are only found in terrestrial animals at much higher temperatures, the constraint on squid performance is circulation, not ventilation. Anaerobic power consumption is also among the highest ever measured, but the division of labor between "aerobic" and "anaerobic" fibers suggests a system designed to optimize the limited capacity of the circulation.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 10
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    Properties of IIlex illecebrosus Egg Masses Potentially Influencing larval Oceanographic Distribution (1985)
    NAFO
    In:  NAFO Scientific Council Studies, 9 . pp. 69-76.
    Details
    Publication Date: 2020-06-18
    Description: Visual observations and video-tape records of the spawning of captive IIlex illecebrosus show that this species can produce gelatinous egg masses 50 cm or larger in diameter while swimming in open water. Measurements of the density of the eggs and the changes in water density which are necessary to lift egg masses indicate that the masses have densities about 0.005% greater than the water used to make the gel, whereas the eggs are more than 5% denser than typical seawater. The gel thus appears to function as a buoyancy mechanism which prevents eggs from sinking. Measurements of rates of temperature equilibration between egg masses and the surrounding water indicate that complete density equilibration requires many days under most conditions. If spawning occurs pelagically, common oceanographic situations where density increases with depth, due either to decreasing temperature (e.g. North Atlantic Central Water) or increasing salinity (e.g. the Gulf Stream), could allow the egg masses to be suspended in the mesopelagic zone. Such a mechanism, which could retain pelagically-spawned eggs of IIlex and other oegopsids, particularly ommastrephids, in a zone where temperatures are adequate to allow embryonic development, helps to explain why there are so few records of ommastrephid eggs in nature.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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