Note: Intro -- Preface -- Acknowledgements -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter-1 -- Saving Solvents in Chromatographic Purifications: The Counter-Current Chromatography Technique -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 CCC Theory -- 1.2.1 High Loadability -- 1.2.2 Scale up Capability -- 1.3 Instrumentation -- 1.3.1 Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic Instruments -- 1.3.2 Liquid Systems -- 1.4 Counter Current Chromatography, a Green Process -- 1.4.1 Saving Solvents -- 1.4.2 Improving Process Parameters -- 1.4.3 Injecting Crude Samples -- 1.4.4 Greener Solvents -- 1.5 Counter Current Chromatography, a Tool for Green Chemistry Development -- 1.5.1 Natural Products -- 1.5.2 Solute Partition Coefficient Determination -- 1.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter-2 -- Ion Size Exclusion Chromatohtaphy on Hypercrosslinked Polystyrene Sorbents as a Green Technology of Separating Mineral Elecyrolites -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Nanoporous Hypercrosslinked Polystyrene Sorbents -- 2.3 Brief Description of Chromatographic Experiments -- 2.4 Dimensions of Hydrated Ions -- 2.5 Separation of Electrolytes on Nanoporous Hypercrosslinked Sorbents -- 2.6 Basic Features of Size Exclusion Chromatography -- 2.7 Conception of "Ideal Separation Process" -- 2.8 Selectivity of Electrolyte Separation Process -- 2.9 Influence of the Electrolyte Concentration on the Selectivity of Separat -- 2.10 "Acid Retardation", "Base Retardation" and "Salt Retardation" Phenomena -- 2.11 Other Convincing Proofs of Separating Electrolytes via Exclusion Mechanism -- 2.12 Do we Really Need Sorbent Functional Groups to Separate Electrolytes? -- 2.13 Productivity of the Ion Size Exclusion Process -- 2.14 Ion Size Exclusion-Green Technology -- 2.15 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter-3 -- Supercritical Fluid Chromatography: A Green Approach for Separation and Purification of Organic and Inorganic Analytes. , 3.1 Introduction to Green Chemistry and Supercritical Fluid Chromatography -- 3.2 Super Critical Fluids -- 3.2.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) -- 3.3 Supercritical Fluid Chromatography (SFC): An Overview -- 3.3.1 History of Development of Supercritical Fluid Chromatography -- 3.3.2 Instrumentation -- 3.3.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Supercritical Fluid Chromatography -- 3.3.3 Properties of SFC compared to GC and HPLC -- 3.4 Industrial Applications of SCFs and SFCs -- 3.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter-4 -- High Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 High Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography -- 4.3 Sample Preparation in HPTLC -- 4.4 Green Separation Modalities in HPTLC -- 4.4.1 "Three R" Philosophy-Replacement of Toxic Solvents with Environmental Friendly Mobi -- 4.4.1.1 Reversed-Phase Chromatography -- 4.4.1.2 Hydrophilic Interaction Chromatography (HILIC) in HPTLC -- 4.4.1.3 Salting-Out Chromatography in HPTLC -- 4.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter-5 -- Green Techniques in Gas Chromatography -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Sample Preparation -- 5.2.1 Direct Methods Without Sample Preparation -- 5.2.2 Solventless Sample Preparation Techniques -- 5.2.2.1 Solid Phase Extraction -- 5.2.2.2 Vapor-Phase Extraction -- 5.2.2.3 Thermal Desorption (TD)/Thermal Extraction (TE) -- 5.2.2.4 Membrane Extraction -- 5.2.3 Sample Preparation Using Environmentally Friendly Solvents -- 5.2.3.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) -- 5.2.3.2 Subcritical Water Extraction (SWE) -- 5.2.3.3 Ionic Liquids (ILs) -- 5.2.3.4 Cloud-Point Extraction -- 5.2.4 Assisted Solvent Extraction -- 5.3 Column Considerations for Green Gas Chromatography -- 5.4 Carrier Gas Considerations for Green Gas Chromatography -- 5.5 Coupling GC with Other Analytical Tools -- 5.6 On-Site Analysis. , 5.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter-6 -- Preparation and Purification of Garlic-Derived Organosulfur Compound Allicin by Green Methodologies -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Green RP-HPLC Purification of the Allicin -- 6.3 Characterization of the Allicin by Green Methodologies -- 6.4 Allicin in Different Garlic Extract by Green RP-HPLC -- 6.5 Allicin Green Chemical Synthesis -- 6.6 Stability of Allicin -- 6.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter-7 -- Green Sample Preparation Focusing on Organic Analytes in Complex Matrices -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.1.1 Trends in Green Analytical Chemistry -- 7.1.2 Green Techniques for Sample Preparation -- 7.1.2.1 Reduction and Solvent Replacement -- Supercritical Fluid Extraction -- Membranes -- 7.1.2.2 Solvent Elimination -- Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) -- Matrix Solid-Phase Dispersion (MSPD) -- Sorptive Extraction Techniques -- Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) -- Stir-Bar Sorptive Extraction -- 7.2 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter-8 -- Studies Regarding the Optimization of the Solvent Consumption in the Determination of Organochlor -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Materials and Methods -- 8.2.1 Materials -- 8.2.2 Methods -- 8.3 Results -- 8.4 Discussions -- 8.4.1 TRM1 -- 8.4.2 TRM2 -- 8.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter-9 -- Size Exclusion Chromatography a Useful Technique For Speciation Analysis of Polydimethylsiloxanes -- 9.1 Introduction to SEC -- 9.2 SEC Retention Mechanisms -- 9.2.1 Ideal Size Exclusion Mechanism -- 9.2.2 Non-Ideal Size Exclusion Mechanism -- 9.3 The Stationary Phase in SEC -- 9.4 The Mobile Phase in SEC -- 9.5 Analytical Problems -- 9.6 Methods for Column Calibration -- 9.7 Applications of SEC Biomedical and Pharmaceutical -- 9.7.1 SEC as a Useful Technique for Linear Polydimethylsiloxanes Speciation Analysis. , 9.8 Methodology for Linear Polydimethylsiloxanes Speciation Analysis -- 9.8.1 Mobile Phase Selection -- 9.8.2 Stationary Phase Selection -- 9.8.3 Column Conditions -- 9.8.4 Column Calibration -- 9.8.5 Separation of Polydimethylsiloxanes -- 9.9 Conclusions -- References -- Erratum -- Index.

Note: Intro -- Green Solvents I -- Preface -- Editors' bios -- Acknowledgments -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Green Solvents Fundamental and Industrial Applications -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Solvent-Free Reactions -- 1.2.1 Organic Synthesis -- 1.2.1.1 Protection/Deprotection Reactions -- 1.2.1.2 Tishchenko Reaction -- 1.2.1.3 Condensation Reactions -- 1.2.1.4 Aldol Reaction -- 1.2.1.5 Sonogashira Reaction -- 1.2.1.6 Metathesis Reactions -- 1.2.1.7 Diels-Alder Reactions -- 1.2.1.8 Heck Reaction -- 1.2.1.9 Mannich Reaction -- 1.2.1.10 Hydrogenation -- 1.2.1.11 Esterification -- 1.2.1.12 Meyers' Lactamization -- 1.2.1.13 Synthesis of 1,3,5-Triarylbenzene -- 1.2.1.14 Hydroaminovinylation of Olefins -- 1.2.1.15 Synthesis of Diynes -- 1.2.1.16 Synthesis of Lactic Acid -- 1.2.1.17 Synthesis of Thioglycosides -- 1.2.1.18 Synthesis of Lipidyl-Cyclodextrins -- 1.2.1.19 Synthesis of Unsaturated Ketones -- 1.2.1.20 Synthesis of Nitrotoluene -- 1.2.1.21 Synthesis of Quinazoline-2,4(1 H ,3 H)-Diones -- 1.2.1.22 Synthesis of Monomethine Indocyanine Dyes -- 1.2.1.23 Synthesis of Acetyl Salicylic Acid -- 1.2.1.24 Oxidation -- 1.2.1.25 Reduction -- 1.2.1.26 Synthesis of Heterocyclic Compounds -- 1.2.2 Inorganic and Materials Synthesis -- 1.2.3 Polymerization -- 1.3 Water -- 1.3.1 Organic Synthesis -- 1.3.1.1 Suzuki-Miyaura Reactions -- 1.3.1.2 Michael Reactions -- 1.3.1.3 Knoevenagel Reactions -- 1.3.1.4 Aldol Reactions -- 1.3.1.5 Telomerisation Reactions -- 1.3.1.6 Amination Reactions -- 1.3.1.7 Alkylation -- 1.3.1.8 Cycloaddition Reactions -- 1.3.1.9 Hydroxylation -- 1.3.1.10 Alkynylation -- 1.3.1.11 Condensation Reactions -- 1.3.1.12 Diels-Alder Reactions -- 1.3.1.13 Mannich Reactions -- 1.3.1.14 Condensation Reactions -- 1.3.1.15 Sonogashira-Hagihara Reaction -- 1.3.1.16 Hydrolysis -- 1.3.1.17 Aza-Friedel-Crafts Reaction. , 1.3.1.18 Cyanation of Aryl Iodides -- 1.3.1.19 Suzuki Reaction -- 1.3.1.20 Cycloaddition Reactions -- 1.3.1.21 Aminohalogenation Reaction -- 1.3.1.22 Photooxygenation of Furans -- 1.3.1.23 Electrooxidation -- 1.3.1.24 Synthesis of 1,8-Dioxo-9,10-Diaryldecahydroacridines -- 1.3.1.25 Oxidation -- 1.3.1.26 Reduction -- 1.3.1.27 Synthesis of Heterocyclic Compounds -- 1.3.2 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles -- 1.4 Supercritical Fluids -- 1.4.1 Extraction -- 1.4.2 Organic Synthesis -- 1.4.3 Materials Synthesis and Modifications -- 1.4.4 Solubility in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) -- 1.5 Room Temperature Ionic Liquids (RTIL)s -- 1.5.1 Organic Synthesis -- 1.5.1.1 Enzymatic Reactions -- 1.5.1.2 Transesterification -- 1.5.1.3 Hydroesterificaton -- 1.5.1.4 Diels-Alder Reactions -- 1.5.1.5 Michael Reaction -- 1.5.1.6 Friedel-Crafts Reactions -- 1.5.1.7 Condensation Reactions -- 1.5.1.8 Cyclocondensation Reactions -- 1.5.1.9 Mannich Reaction -- 1.5.1.10 Hydrolysis -- 1.5.1.11 Dehydration -- 1.5.1.12 Epoxidation -- 1.5.1.13 Synthesis of Imidazoles -- 1.5.1.14 Synthesis of Diacetals and Diketals -- 1.5.1.15 Bonds Cleavage Reactions -- 1.5.1.16 Oligomerization -- 1.5.1.17 Synthesis of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural and Furfural -- 1.5.1.18 Preparation of Biodiesel Fuel -- 1.5.1.19 Synthesis of Tributyl Citrate -- 1.5.1.20 Synthesis of Dimethyl Carbonate -- 1.5.1.21 Nitration of Aromatic Compounds -- 1.5.1.22 Alkylation and Acylation -- 1.5.1.23 Synthesis of Fatty Acid Esters of Steroids -- 1.5.1.24 Aldol Reaction -- 1.5.1.25 Synthesis of 1,4-Dibromo-Naphthalene -- 1.5.1.26 Heck and the Knoevenagel Reactions -- 1.5.1.27 Synthesis of Aromatic Chloroamines -- 1.5.1.28 Esterification -- 1.5.1.29 Hydrosilylation of Alkenes -- 1.5.1.30 Coupling Reactions -- 1.5.1.31 Synthesis of Cellulose Propionate -- 1.5.1.32 Synthesis of Hydroxy Ester. , 1.5.1.33 Sonogashira Reactions -- 1.5.1.34 Metathesis Reaction -- 1.5.1.35 Aziridination Reaction -- 1.5.1.36 Synthesis of [60] Fullerene -- 1.5.1.37 Methanolysis -- 1.5.1.38 Dimerization -- 1.5.1.39 Synthesis of Drugs -- 1.5.1.40 Oxidation -- 1.5.1.41 Synthesis of Heterocyclic Compounds -- 1.5.2 Materials Synthesis and Modifications -- 1.5.2.1 Synthesis of Nanoparticles -- 1.5.2.2 Synthesis of Silicas -- 1.5.2.3 Synthesis of Zeolites -- 1.5.2.4 Bioreactors -- 1.5.2.5 Synthesis of Tin Oxide Microspheres -- 1.5.2.6 Synthesis of ZnO Mesocrystals -- 1.5.2.7 Functionalization of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes (MWNTs) -- 1.5.2.8 Desulfurization of Diesel -- 1.5.2.9 Removal of Sulfur Dioxide -- 1.5.2.10 Decomposition -- 1.5.2.11 Carbonization -- 1.5.2.12 Synthesis of Hydrogels and Composite Hydrogels -- 1.5.2.13 Absorption -- 1.5.2.14 Corrosion Protection -- 1.5.2.15 Electrodeposition -- 1.5.2.16 Depolymerization -- 1.5.2.17 Inhibitor -- 1.5.2.18 Synthesis of Inorganic Materials -- 1.5.3 Polymerization -- 1.5.4 Extraction -- 1.5.5 Solubility -- 1.6 Perfluorinated Solvents -- 1.6.1 Extraction -- 1.6.2 Organic Synthesis -- 1.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2: Green Fluids Extraction and Purification of Bioactive Compounds from Natural Materials -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Isolation and Purification of 3,5-Diprenyl-4-Hydroxycinnamic Acid (DHCA) in Brazilian Propolis -- 2.2.1 Classical Solvent Extractions -- 2.2.2 Purification and Identification of 3,5-Diprenyl-4-Hydroxycinnamic Acid (DHCA) -- 2.2.3 Quantification of 3,5-Diprenyl-4-Hydroxycinnamic Acid (DHCA) -- 2.3 Green Fluid Extraction of 3,5-Diprenyl-4-Hydroxycinnamic Acid (DHCA) from Brazilian Propolis -- 2.3.1 Sensitivity Test of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Extractions -- 2.3.2 Response Surface Methodology (RSM): Designed Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Extractions. , 2.4 Precipitation of Submicron Particles in Brazilian Propolis via Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Antisolvent -- 2.4.1 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Micronization Process -- 2.4.2 Analysis of Micronized Precipitates -- 2.4.2.1 Determination of Particles Size, Distribution, and Morphology -- 2.4.2.2 Quantification of DHCA and Flavonoids -- 2.4.3 Experimental Results of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Antisolvent Micronization -- 2.4.3.1 Preliminary Experiment of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Precipitation -- 2.4.3.2 Response Surface Methodology (RSM): Designed Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Precipitation -- 2.5 Biological Activity of Propolis Samples Produced by Supercritical Fluid Procedure -- 2.5.1 Cytotoxic Assay of Human Cells -- 2.5.1.1 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Extracts -- 2.5.1.2 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Precipitates -- 2.5.2 Antioxidative Ability Tests -- 2.5.2.1 2,2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Free Radical -- 2.5.2.2 Low-Density Lipid Protein -- 2.6 Column Partition Fractionation of g -Oryzanols -- 2.6.1 Isolation and Identification of Two g -Oryzanols -- 2.6.2 Quantification of g -Oryzanols, Free Fatty Acids, and Triglycerides -- 2.6.3 Soxhlet Solvent Extractions -- 2.6.4 Purification of Rice Bran Oil Using Column Partition -- 2.7 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Extraction and Deacidification of Rice Bran Oil -- 2.7.1 Experimentally Designed Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Extraction -- 2.7.2 Pilot-Scale Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Extraction -- 2.7.3 Experimentally Designed Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO 2) Deacidification -- 2.8 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3: Green Solvents for Biocatalysis -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Water -- 3.3 Supercritical fluids -- 3.4 Fluorous Solvents -- 3.4.1 Properties and Applications. , 3.4.2 Applications of Fluorous Biphasic Systems in Biocatalysis (FBS) -- 3.5 Ionic Liquids -- 3.5.1 Properties and Applications -- 3.5.2 Biocatalysis in Ionic Liquids -- 3.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4: Green Solvents for Pharmaceutical Industry -- 4.1 Pharmaceutical Green Chemistry -- 4.2 Organic Solvents in the Pharmaceutical Industry -- 4.3 Green Solvents Technology: A Potential Platform for the Pharmaceutical Industry -- 4.4 Acidic Ionic Liquids -- 4.5 Basic Ionic Liquids -- 4.6 Oxidation on Ionic Liquids -- 4.7 Chiral Ionic Liquids and Chiral Amino Acid Ionic Liquids -- 4.8 Supported Ionic Liquids -- 4.9 Microwave- and Ultrasound-Assisted Reactions Using Ionic Liquids -- 4.10 Recent Bioconversions on Ionic Liquids -- 4.11 Ionic Liquids for Analytical Spectroscopy -- References -- Chapter 5: Limonene as Green Solvent for Extraction of Natural Products -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Limonene: Origin, Applications, and Properties -- 5.3 Limonene as an Alternative Solvent for Soxhlet Extraction -- 5.4 Limonene as an Alternative Solvent for Dean-Stark Distillation -- 5.5 Limonene as an Alternative Solvent for Extraction of By-Products -- 5.6 Combining Green Extraction Technique and Green Solvent -- 5.7 Future Trends -- References -- Chapter 6: Glycerol as an Alternative Solvent for Organic Reactions -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Glycerol for Redox Reactions -- 6.3 Glycerol for Catalytic C-C Bond Formations -- 6.4 Glycerol for Biocatalysis -- 6.5 Glycerol for Micellar Catalytic Reactions -- 6.6 Other Catalytic Organic Reactions in Glycerol -- 6.7 Glycerol-Based Solvents -- References -- Chapter 7: Water as Reaction Medium in the Synthetic Processes Involving Epoxides -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Epoxides in the Synthesis of 1,2-Amino Alcohols in Water -- 7.3 Epoxides in the Synthesis 1,2-Diols, 1,2-Alkyloxy, and -Aryloxy Alcohols in Water. , 7.4 Epoxides in the Synthesis Hydroxy Sulfur Compounds.

Note: Intro -- Green Solvents II -- Preface -- Editor's Biography -- Acknowledgments -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Ionic Liquids as Green Solvents: Progress and Prospects -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 History of Ionic Liquids (ILs) -- 1.3 Structure of Ionic Liquids (ILs) -- 1.3.1 Cations -- 1.3.2 Anions -- 1.4 Synthesis of Ionic Liquids (ILs) -- 1.4.1 Quaternization Reactions -- 1.4.2 Anion-Exchange Reactions -- 1.4.2.1 Lewis-Acid-Based Ionic Liquids (ILs) -- 1.4.2.2 Anion Metathesis -- 1.5 Properties of Ionic Liquids (ILs) -- 1.5.1 Melting Point -- 1.5.2 Volatility -- 1.5.3 Thermal Stability -- 1.5.4 Viscosity -- 1.5.5 Density -- 1.5.6 Polarity -- 1.5.7 Conductivity and Electrochemical Window -- 1.5.8 Toxicity -- 1.5.9 Air and Moisture Stability -- 1.5.10 Cost and Biodegradability -- 1.6 Solvent Properties and Solvent Effects -- 1.6.1 Solute-Ionic Liquids (ILs) Interactions -- 1.6.1.1 Interaction of Ionic Liquids (ILs) with Water -- 1.6.1.2 Interaction of Ionic Liquids (ILs) with Acid and Base -- 1.6.1.3 Interaction of Ionic Liquids (ILs) with Aromatic Hydrocarbon -- 1.6.1.4 Interaction with Chiral Substrates -- 1.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2: Ionic Liquids as Green Solvents for Alkylation and Acylation -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Alkylation -- 2.2.1 Ionic Liquids as Green Solvents -- 2.2.2 Ionic Liquids as Dual Green Solvents and Catalysts -- 2.2.3 Ionic Liquids Immobilized on Solid Supports -- 2.3 Acylation -- 2.3.1 Ionic Liquids as Green Solvents -- 2.3.2 Ionic Liquids in Dual Role as Green Solvents and Catalysts -- 2.3.3 Immobilized Ionic Liquids -- 2.4 Remarks -- References -- Chapter 3: Ionic Liquids as Green Solvents for Glycosylation Reactions -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Preparation of Acid-Ionic Liquids -- 3.3 Reusability of Acid-Ionic Liquids -- 3.4 Tunability and Basicity of Ionic Liquids. , 3.5 Nonvolatility of Ionic Liquids -- 3.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4: Ionic Liquid Crystals -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Ionic Liquid Crystals Based on Organic Cationsand Anions -- 4.2.1 Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquid Crystals -- 4.2.2 Pyrrolidinium-Based Ionic Liquid Crystals -- 4.2.3 Pyridinium and Bipyridinium-Based IonicLiquid Crystals -- 4.2.4 Morpholinium-, Piperazinium-, and Piperidinium-BasedIonic Liquid Crystals -- 4.2.5 Ammonium-Based Ionic Liquid Crystals -- 4.2.6 Guanidinium-Based Ionic Liquid Crystals -- 4.2.7 Phosphonium-Based Ionic Liquid Crystals -- 4.2.8 Anions -- 4.3 Ionic Liquid Crystals Based on Metal Ions -- 4.4 Polymeric Ionic Liquid Crystals -- 4.4.1 Main-Chain Ionic Liquid-Crystalline Polymers -- 4.4.2 Side-Chain Ionic Liquid-Crystalline Polymers -- 4.4.3 Dendrimers -- 4.5 Applications of Ionic Liquid Crystals -- 4.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5: Application of Ionic Liquids in Extraction and Separation of Metals -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Processing Metal Oxides and Ores with Ionic Liquids -- 5.2.1 Metal Oxides Processing -- 5.2.2 Mineral Processing -- 5.3 Electrodeposition of Metals Using Ionic Liquids -- 5.3.1 Electrodeposition of Aluminum -- 5.3.2 Electrodeposition of Magnesium -- 5.3.3 Electrodeposition of Titanium -- 5.4 Ionic Liquids in Solvent Extraction of Metal Ions -- 5.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6: Potential for Hydrogen Sulfide Removal Using Ionic Liquid Solvents -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Ionic Liquids as Physical Solvents for H 2 S Removal -- 6.3 Hybrid Solvents Comprising Ionic Liquids and Amines -- 6.4 Conclusions and Outlook -- References -- Chapter 7: Biocatalytic Reactions in Ionic Liquid Media -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Biocatalyst Tested in Ionic Liquids -- 7.2.1 Lipases -- 7.2.2 Esterases and Proteases -- 7.2.3 Glycosidases -- 7.2.4 Oxidoreductases. , 7.3 Effect of the Ionic Liquid Composition on the Activity and Stability of Enzymes -- 7.4 Biotransformation in Ionic Liquids -- 7.4.1 Synthesis of Flavour Esters -- 7.4.2 Biotransformations of Polysaccharides and Nucleotides -- 7.4.3 Synthesis of Biodiesel -- 7.4.4 Synthesis of Polyesters -- 7.4.5 Resolution of Racemates -- 7.4.6 Synthesis of Carbohydrates -- 7.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8: Ionic Liquids/Supercritical Carbon Dioxide as Advantageous Biphasic Systems in Enzymatic Synthesis -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide in Enzymatic Synthesis -- 8.3 Ionic Liquids as Reaction Media in Enzymatic Synthesis -- 8.4 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide/Ionic Liquid Biphasic System in Enzymatic Synthesis -- 8.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 9: Ionic Liquids as Lubricants -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Overview of Ionic Liquids (ILs) -- 9.2.1 Definition and Types of Ionic Liquids (ILs) -- 9.2.2 Relationship Between Molecular Structure and Properties of Ionic Liquids (ILs) -- 9.3 Common Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Lubricants -- 9.3.1 Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Lubrication Oils -- 9.3.1.1 Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Lubrication Oils for Fe Alloy/Steel or Steel/Steel Contacts -- 9.3.1.2 Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Lubrication Oils of Light Alloys -- 9.3.1.3 Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Lubrication Oils for Specific Contacts -- 9.3.1.4 Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Lubrication Oils Under Vacuum -- 9.3.2 Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Lubrication Additives -- 9.3.2.1 Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Water Additives -- 9.3.2.2 Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Mineral Oil Additives -- 9.3.2.3 Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Synthetic Oil and Lubrication Grease Additives -- 9.3.2.4 Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Polymer Material Additives -- 9.3.3 Additives of Ionic Liquid (IL) Lubricants -- 9.3.4 Thin Films -- 9.4 Function of Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Lubricants. , 9.4.1 Function of Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Lubrication Oils -- 9.4.2 Function of Ionic Liquids (ILs) as Additives or Thin Films -- 9.5 Lubrication Mechanism -- 9.6 Conclusions and Outlook -- References -- Chapter 10: Stability and Activity of Enzymes in Ionic Liquids -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Ionic Liquid in Reference to Its Origin -- 10.1.2 Ionic Liquid as a Solvent -- 10.1.3 Enzymes in Ionic Liquids -- 10.2 Enzyme Stability in Ionic Liquids -- 10.2.1 Stability of Lipases -- 10.2.2 Stability of Monellin -- 10.2.3 Stability of Cytochrome c -- 10.2.4 Stability of α -Chymotrypsin -- 10.2.5 Stability of Penicillin G Acylase -- 10.3 Methods of Stabilizing Proteins/Enzymes in Ionic Liquids -- 10.3.1 Stabilization by Ionic Liquid Coating -- 10.3.2 Stabilization by Anchoring with Carbon Nanotubes -- 10.3.3 Stabilization by Capping with Nanoparticles -- 10.3.4 Stabilization by Entrapment in Hydrogels -- 10.3.5 Stabilization by Enzyme Modification -- 10.3.6 Stabilization by Emulsification of Ionic Liquids -- 10.4 Catalytic Activity of Enzymes in Ionic Liquids -- 10.4.1 Biotransformations by Lipases and Esterases -- 10.4.1.1 Esterification and Transesterification Reaction -- 10.4.1.2 Enantioselective Hydrolysis Reaction -- 10.4.1.3 Enantioselective Acylation Reaction -- 10.4.1.4 Kinetic Resolution of Alcohols -- 10.4.2 Reactions Catalyzed by Proteases -- 10.4.3 Carbohydrate Synthesis by Glycosidases -- 10.4.4 Hydrocyanation Reaction by Lyases -- 10.4.5 Biocatalytic Redox Reactions by Oxidoreductases -- 10.4.6 Enzymatic Polymerization Reaction in Ionic Liquids -- 10.5 Stability/Activity Vis-à-vis Solvent Property of Ionic Liquids: A Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) Analysis -- 10.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 11: Supported Ionic Liquid Membranes: Preparation, Stability and Applications -- 11.1 Introduction. , 11.2 Methods of Preparation and Characterization of Supported Ionic Liquid Membranes -- 11.3 Stability of Supported Ionic Liquid Membranes -- 11.4 Mechanism of Transport Through Supported Ionic Liquid Membranes -- 11.5 Fields of Application of Supported Liquid Membranes -- 11.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 12: Application of Ionic Liquids in Multicomponent Reactions -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.1.1 Ionic Liquids Based on 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium -- 12.1.1.1 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium -- 12.1.1.2 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium Hexafluorophosphate -- 12.1.1.3 1-n-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium Bromide -- 12.1.1.4 Butyl Methyl Imidazolium Hydroxide -- 12.1.1.5 Other 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids -- 12.1.2 Other Imidazole-Based Ionic Liquids -- 12.1.2.1 Ionic Liquid-Supported Iodoarenes -- 12.1.2.2 1,3- n -Dibutylimidazolium Bromide -- 12.1.2.3 1- n -Butylimidazolium Tetrafluoroborate -- 12.1.2.4 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazole Acetate -- 12.1.2.5 An Acidic Ionic Liquid -- 12.1.2.6 Task-Specific Ionic Liquids -- 12.1.2.7 1-Methyl-3-heptyl-imidazolium Tetrafluoroborate -- 12.1.2.8 1-[2-(Acetoacetyloxy)ethyl]-3-methylimidazolium Hexafluorophosphate-Bound Acetoacetate -- 12.1.2.9 1-[2-(Acetoacetyloxy)ethyl]-3-methylimidazolium Tetrafluoroborate- or Hexafluorophosphate-Bound b -oxo Esters -- 12.1.2.10 1-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-3-methylimidazolium Tetrafluoroborate or Hexafluorophosphate and N -(2-Hydroxyethyl)pyridinium Tetrafluoroborate or Hexafluorophosphate -- 12.1.2.11 PEG-1000-Based Dicationic Acidic Ionic Liquid -- 12.1.2.12 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ( S)-2-Pyrrolidinecarboxylic Acid Salt -- 12.1.2.13 1-Methyl-3-pentylimidazolium Bromide -- 12.1.2.14 3-Methyl-1-sulfonic Acid Imidazolium Chloride -- 12.1.3 Other Ionic Liquids -- 12.2 Conclusions -- References. , Chapter 13: Ionic Liquids as Binary Mixtures with Selected Molecular Solvents, Reactivity Characterisation and Molecular-Microscopic Properties.

Note: Intro -- Preface -- Acknowledgements -- Contents -- Editors and Contributors -- 1 Organic-Inorganic Membranes Impregnated with Ionic Liquid -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Ionic Liquids: General Properties and Applications -- 3 Ionic Liquids as Electrolytes in Fuel Cells -- 4 Ionic Liquid Polymer Membranes for Fuel Cells -- 4.1 Ionic Liquid/Polymer Membranes -- 4.2 Polymerized Ionic Liquid Membranes -- 4.3 IL Gel and Composite Polymer Membranes -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 2 Organic/TiO2 Nanocomposite Membranes: Recent Developments -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 TiO2-Polymer Electrolyte Membranes (PEMs) -- 2.1 Perfluorinated Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolyte Membranes (PEMs) -- 2.2 Acid-Base Polymer Complex-Based Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposite PEMs -- 2.3 TiO2-Modified Polytetrafluoroethylene Membranes -- 2.4 Poly(ether ether ketone)-Based Nanocomposite PEMs -- 2.5 PANI Based Membranes -- 2.6 PES Based Membranes -- 2.7 Polysulfone-Based Membranes -- 2.8 TiO2 Solar Cells -- 2.9 Carbon Materials and Metal-Carbon Nanotube (CNTs)-TiO2 Composites -- 2.9.1 Carbon-TiO2 Composites -- 2.9.2 Graphene (GN)-TiO2 Composites -- 3 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 3 Organic/Silica Nanocomposite Membranes -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Silica Nanoparticle-Based Membranes -- 3 Conclusion -- References -- 4 Organic/Zeolites Nanocomposite Membranes -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Basic Concepts About Zeolites -- 3 Polymer-Zeolite Composite Membranes: The Role of the Zeolite -- 3.1 Influence of Si/Al Ratio -- 3.2 Proton Mobility in Zeolites -- 3.3 Internal and External Surface Area -- 3.4 Configurational Diffusion -- 3.5 Crystallite Size [17, 18] -- 3.6 Functionalization of Zeolite Surface -- 3.7 Selectivity, Proton Conductivity, and Permeability. , 4 Techniques for Producing Organic/Zeolite Nanocomposite Membranes -- 5 Synthetic Polymers/Zeolite Nanocomposite Membranes for PEMFCs -- 5.1 Route 1: Zeolite + Organic Monomers -- 5.2 Route 3: Inorganic Precursor + Organic Polymer -- 5.3 Route 4: Zeolite + Organic Polymer -- 6 Natural Polymers/Zeolite Nanocomposite Membranes for PEMFCs -- 7 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 5 Composite Membranes Based on Heteropolyacids and Their Applications in Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Heteropolyacids Types and Structures -- 3 HPAs and Proton Transport in Fuel Cells -- 4 HPAs in PEM Fuel Cell -- 5 HPAs in High-Temperature and Low-Humidity PEMFC -- 6 HPAs in DMFC -- 7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 6 Organic/Montmorillonite Nanocomposite Membranes -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Membrane Fabrication Methods -- 2.1 Phase Inversion -- 2.2 Immersion Precipitation -- 2.3 Evaporation-Induced Phase Separation -- 3 Montmorillonite-Based Nanocomposites Membranes -- 4 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Electrospun Nanocomposite Materials for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Methanol Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methanol Crossover and Low Proton Conductivity -- 3 Composite SPEEK -- 4 SPEEK-Clay Nanocomposite as PEM for DMFC -- 5 Morphology Types and the Importance of Exfoliated Surface Structure on DMFC Performance -- 6 Preparation of Exfoliated Nanocomposite Membranes -- 7 Electrospinning as a Membrane Morphological Modification Technique -- 8 Electrospun Polymer-Based Nanofiber Membranes for DMFC Application -- 9 Electrospinning Parameters -- 10 Future Directions and Conclusion -- References -- 8 A Basic Overview of Fuel Cells: Thermodynamics and Cell Efficiency -- Abstract -- 1 What Is a Fuel Cell? -- 2 Fuel Cell Structure and Classification -- 3 Fuel Cell Construction. , 4 PEMFC Types, Electrode Reactions, and Cell Potential -- 4.1 H2/O2 PEMFC -- 4.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC) -- 4.3 Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells (DEFC) -- 4.4 Direct Formic Acid Fuel Cells (DFAFC) -- 4.5 Direct Borohydride Fuel Cells (DBFCs) -- 5 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics -- 5.1 Effect of Temperature -- 5.2 Effect of Pressure -- 5.3 Effect of Concentration of Reactant -- 6 Fuel Cell Efficiency -- 6.1 Losses in Actual System -- 6.2 Activation Overpotential -- 6.3 Ohmic Polarization Losses -- 6.4 Mass Transport Overpotential -- 7 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Organic/Inorganic and Sulfated Zirconia Nanocomposite Membranes for Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Proton-Exchange Membranes (PEMs) -- 2 Organic/Inorganic Hybrid Membranes -- 3 Organic-Sulfated Metal Oxide Hybrid Membrane -- 4 Sulfated Zirconia Nanocomposite Membranes -- 5 Conclusion and Future Prospects -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 10 Electrochemical Promotional Role of Under-Rib Convection-Based Flow-Field in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 General Description of Performance Improvements in PEMFCs -- 2.1 Proton Exchange Membrane -- 2.2 Electrode and Catalyst -- 2.3 Gas Diffusion Layer -- 2.4 Membrane Electrode Assembly -- 2.5 Bipolar Plate -- 2.6 Single Cell and Stack -- 2.6.1 Water and Heat Management -- 2.6.2 Fuel Crossover, Oxidation, and CO Poisoning -- 2.6.3 Scale-up and Long-Term Experiments -- 3 Structured Techniques for Flow-Field Optimization -- 3.1 Experimental Approaches to Flow-Field Optimization -- 3.1.1 Current Density Measurement -- 3.1.2 Flow Visualization -- 3.1.3 Polarization Curve Evaluation -- 3.2 Modeling Approaches to Flow Optimization -- 3.2.1 Computational Fluid Dynamic Modeling -- 3.2.2 Two-Phase Modeling for Water Management -- 3.2.3 Complex Flow-field Interaction Modeling. , 3.3 Validation of Experimental and Numerical Results -- 4 New Flow-field Optimization Approaches Utilizing Under-Rib Convection -- 4.1 Homogeneous Distribution of the Reactants -- 4.2 Uniformity of Temperature and Current Density Distributions -- 4.3 Facilitation of Liquid Water Discharge -- 4.4 Reduction in Pressure Drop -- 4.5 Improvement in Output Power -- 5 Summary -- References -- 11 Methods for the Preparation of Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods for Preparation of Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolyte Membranes -- 2.1 Blending of Nanoparticles in Polymer Matrix -- 2.1.1 Phase Inversion Method for Preparation of PEMs -- 2.1.2 Solution Casting Method -- 2.1.3 Hot Press -- 2.2 Doping or Infiltration and Precipitation of Nanoparticles and Precursors -- 2.3 Self-assembly of Nanoparticles -- 2.4 Non-hydrolytic Sol-Gel (NHSG) Method -- 2.5 Layer-by-Layer Fabrication Method -- 2.6 Nonequilibrium Impregnation Reduction -- 2.7 Surface Patterning Method -- 3 Future Directions and Conclusion -- References -- 12 An Overview of Chemical and Mechanical Stabilities of Polymer Electrolytes Membrane -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Durability of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) -- 3 Proton Conductivity of PEM -- 4 Chemical Stabilities and Degradation of PEM -- 5 Mechanical Stability and Degradation of PEM -- 6 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 13 Electrospun Nanocomposite Materials for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Electrospinning Process -- 2.1 Electrospun Fibers -- 2.1.1 Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) -- 2.1.2 Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) -- 2.1.3 Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO) -- 2.1.4 Poly(arylene ether)s -- 2.1.5 Poly(imide)s -- 2.1.6 Poly(benzimidazole) (PBI) -- 2.2 Crosslinking of Electrospun Fibers. , 2.3 Interface Bonding -- 3 Reducing Methanol Crossover -- 4 Improving Proton Conductivity -- 4.1 Electrospinning of Nafion -- 4.2 Aligned Nanofibers -- 5 Other Applications of Electrospinning in Fuel Cells -- 6 Conclusion -- References -- 14 Fabrication Techniques for the Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Recent Developments of PEM-Based on Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposites -- 3 Fabrication Techniques for the Preparation of PEM -- 3.1 Different Polymerization Routes -- 3.2 Plasma Methods -- 3.3 Sol-Gel Method -- 3.4 Ultrasonic Coating Technique -- 3.5 Phase Inversion Method -- 3.6 In Situ Reduction -- 3.7 Catalyst-Coated Membrane by Screen Printing Method -- 3.8 Solution Casting Method -- 3.9 Other Methods -- 4 Summary -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 15 Chitosan-Based Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Fuel Cell Applications -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Chitosan: An Overview -- 3 Characterization of the Polymer Membrane and Their Desired Properties -- 4 Chitosan Based Membranes for Polymer Electrolyte -- 4.1 Chitosan Blend Polymer Electrolyte -- 4.2 Chitosan Cross-Linked Polymer Electrolyte -- 4.3 Chitosan Polymer Composite Based Polymer Electrode -- 5 Chitosan for Fuel Cell -- 6 Chitosan for Biofuel Cell -- 6.1 Microbial Biofuel Cell -- 6.2 Enzymatic Biofuel Cell -- 7 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 16 Fuel Cells: Construction, Design, and Materials -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Different Types of Fuel Cells -- 3 Construction and Design of Different FC -- 3.1 PEMFC -- 3.2 DMFC -- 3.3 AEMFC -- 3.4 PAFC -- 3.5 SOFC -- 3.6 MCFC -- 4 Catalysts for Different FCs -- 5 Materials and Methods for Preparation of PEM for Fuel Cells -- 6 Characterizations and Characteristic Properties of PEM for Different FC -- 7 Summary -- References. , 17 Proton Conducting Polymer Electrolytes for Fuel Cells via Electrospinning Technique.

Note: Intro -- Preface -- Acknowledgements -- About This Book -- Remorph: A Framework for Application of Computer Vision and Audition in Urban Analysis -- Contents -- About the Authors -- Abbreviations -- List of Figures -- 1 Application of AI in Urban Design -- 1.1 Overview -- 1.2 Book Structure -- 1.3 Situating the Question in the General Field of Inquiry -- 1.4 Remorph as an Analytical Tool for Urban Studies -- 1.4.1 Computer Vision and Its Application in Urban Planning and Design -- 1.4.2 A Brief History of Computer Audition and Its Application in Urban Planning and Design -- 1.4.3 A Brief History of Data Visualization in Urban Planning and Design -- 1.4.4 A Brief History of City as a Cybernetic Mechanism and Application of Data-Driven Analysis in Urban Planning and Design -- 2 Computer Audition in Urban Studies: Theory, Techniques and Rules of Application -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Disambiguation -- 2.3 Finding a Question, Identifying Perfect Strategy of Auditory Data Collection and Urban Sonification -- 2.3.1 Single Sensor -- 2.3.2 Multi Array of Sensors -- 2.3.3 Pointwise Sound Acquisition -- 2.3.4 Linear Sound Acquisition -- 2.4 Understanding Theory, Techniques and Rules of Producing Urban Soundscapes -- 2.4.1 Spatial Soundscapes -- 2.4.2 Temporal Soundscapes -- 2.5 Understanding Theory, Techniques and Rules of Audio-Metrication -- 2.5.1 Pitch Extraction Techniques -- 2.5.1.1 Neural Network Pitch Detection -- 2.5.1.2 YAAPT Pitch Detection -- 2.5.1.3 LPC Pitch Detection -- 2.5.1.4 Autocorrelation Pitch Detection -- 2.5.1.5 Cepstral Pitch Detection -- 2.5.1.6 Dynamic Time Warping -- 2.5.2 Melody -- 2.5.3 Spectrogram -- 2.6 Understanding Theory, Techniques and Rules of Soundscape Analysis -- 2.7 Understanding Theory, Techniques and Rules of Sound-Scape Representation (Citygrams) -- 2.7.1 Preprocessing Phase -- 2.7.2 Acoustic Feature Extraction. , 2.7.3 Acoustic Feature Modelling -- 2.8 Urban Audio Processing -- 2.9 Audio Segmentation -- 2.10 Audio Classification -- 2.11 Melodification -- 2.12 Conclusion -- 3 Computer Vision in Urban Studies: Theory, Techniques and Rules of Application -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Disambiguation -- 3.3 What Is Computer Vision -- 3.4 Brief History of Computer Vision -- 3.5 Introduction to Various Techniques of Computer Vision -- 3.5.1 Blob Detection -- 3.5.2 Shape Detection -- 3.5.3 Color Detection -- 3.5.4 Tracking -- 3.5.5 Size Detection -- 3.5.6 Identity Detection -- 3.5.7 Filtering -- 3.6 Kmeans Clustering -- 3.7 Overall Approach -- 3.7.1 Green Detection -- 3.7.1.1 Extract the Official Boundary of the City in Terms of Longitudes and Latitudes -- 3.7.1.2 Compute the Region of Interest (ROI) -- 3.7.1.3 Segmented the Overall Space of the City into Series of the High Resolution Images -- 3.7.1.4 Compute the Green Area of the Masked Aerial Images Separately -- 3.7.1.5 Calculate the Overall Green Per Capita and Convert Zoom Level to Square Meter -- 3.7.1.6 Plot Green Per Capita with Respect to Zoom Level and Select the Most Fitness Line -- 3.7.2 Road (Network) Detection -- 3.7.3 Water Detection -- 3.7.4 Desert Detection -- 3.7.5 Built-Up Detection -- 3.7.6 Skyline Detection -- 3.8 Conclusion -- 4 Remorph Is a Pedagogical Framework -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Introducing the Structure of a Remorph Workshops -- 4.3 Remorph01: Urban Melodies (Application of the Computer Audition in Urban Planning and Design) -- 4.3.1 Data Acquisition -- 4.3.2 Visualization and Melodification of Data -- 4.3.3 Data Analysis -- 4.3.3.1 Sound Segmentation -- 4.3.3.2 Sound Classification -- 4.4 Remorph02: Urban Processing (Application of the Computer Vision in Urban Planning and Design) -- 4.4.1 Data Acquisition -- 4.4.2 Data Visualization -- 4.4.3 Data Analysis -- References.

Note: Intro -- Contents -- Introduction -- 1 Biomass as a Source of Energy -- 1.1 Biomass Definition -- 1.2 Biomass Classification -- 1.3 Biomass Chemical Elements and Compositions -- 1.4 Ash from Biomass -- 1.4.1 Ash Chemistry -- 1.4.2 Ash Fusion Temperature (Melting Behavior) -- 1.5 Biomass Application as a Source of Energy -- 1.5.1 Direct Application -- 1.5.1.1 Direct Combustion -- Space Heating Application -- Fuel Storage -- Fuel Delivery -- Combustor -- Heat Exchanger -- Ash Bin -- Stack -- Emission Control System -- Electricity Production -- 1.5.1.2 Co-firing -- 1.5.1.3 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) -- 1.6 Summary -- References -- 2 Biomass Densification -- 2.1 Problems Associated with Direct Application of Biomass -- 2.2 Biomass Conversion to Biofuel -- 2.3 Densification Process -- 2.3.1 Mechanical Densification -- 2.3.2 Thermochemical Densification -- 2.4 Mechanical Densification (Agglomeration) Mechanism -- 2.5 Agglomeration Technique -- 2.5.1 Tumble Agglomeration -- 2.5.1.1 Tumble Agglomerator Equipment -- 2.5.2 Pressure Agglomeration -- 2.5.2.1 Pressure Agglomeration Equipment -- References -- 3 Wood Pellet -- 3.1 What Is Pelleting? -- 3.2 Pellet Structure -- 3.3 Raw Material for Pellet Production -- 3.4 Wood as Raw Material for Pellet Production -- 3.4.1 Primary Sources -- 3.4.2 Secondary Sources -- 3.5 Chemical Composition of Wood -- 3.5.1 Cellulose -- 3.5.2 Hemicellulose -- 3.5.3 Lignin -- 3.5.4 Pectin -- 3.5.5 Solvent Extractives -- 3.6 Physical Properties of Wood -- 3.6.1 Ash Content -- 3.6.2 Moisture Content -- 3.7 Wood Pellet History -- 3.8 Softwood Pellet and Hardwood Pellet -- 3.8.1 Softwood -- 3.8.2 Hardwood -- 3.9 Pellet Advantages and Disadvantages -- References -- 4 Wood Pellet Production Process -- 4.1 Pelleting Plant -- 4.1.1 Raw Material Delivery -- 4.1.2 Screening Contaminants of Raw Material -- 4.1.3 Drying of Raw Material. , 4.1.3.1 Rotary Drum Dryer -- 4.1.3.2 Belt Dryer -- 4.1.3.3 Flash Dryer -- 4.1.4 Grinding of Particle Size of Raw -- 4.1.4.1 Hammer Mill -- 4.1.4.2 Roller Mill -- 4.1.5 Conditioning -- 4.1.6 Pellet Mill -- 4.1.7 Cooling of Pellets -- 4.1.7.1 Cooler Type -- 4.1.8 Dust Collector -- 4.1.9 Screening of Fine Particles -- 4.1.10 Storage of Pellet -- 4.1.10.1 Bulk Storage -- 4.1.10.2 Bagging Process -- 4.1.10.3 Pellet Storage Caution -- 4.1.11 Pellet Delivery -- 4.2 Storage Apparatus -- 4.3 Storage Chamber Installation Room -- 4.4 Room Storage Features -- 4.5 Tank to Combustion Chamber Delivery System -- 4.5.1 Auger Collector or Screw Feeder for Storage Chambers -- 4.5.2 Air Conveying System -- References -- 5 Pellet Production Variables -- 5.1 Feedstock Variables -- 5.1.1 Availability (Wood Pellet and Biomass Pellet) -- 5.1.2 Moisture Content -- 5.1.3 Ash Content -- 5.1.4 Particle Size, Shape, and Distribution -- 5.1.5 Chemical Composition (Cellulose, Hemicelluloses, and Lignin) -- 5.1.6 Feed Formulation -- 5.2 Process Variables -- 5.2.1 Temperature -- 5.2.2 Pressure -- 5.2.3 Retention and Relaxation Time -- 5.2.4 Pellet Die Material and Specifications -- 5.2.5 The Forces in Pellet Mill -- 5.2.6 Conditioning -- 5.2.6.1 Steam Temperature and Pressure -- 5.2.6.2 Retention Time -- 5.2.7 Cooling -- 5.2.8 Manufacturing Throughput Time -- References -- 6 Wood Pellet Production Standards -- 6.1 Solid Biofuel Standards -- 6.2 Pellet Standards Parameters -- 6.2.1 Sweden -- 6.2.2 Germany -- 6.2.3 Austria -- 6.2.4 Denmark -- 6.2.5 Finland -- 6.2.6 Italy -- 6.2.7 Norway -- 6.2.8 PFI -- 6.3 European Common Standard -- 6.3.1 European Standard (EN) -- 6.3.2 CEN Workshop Agreement (CWA) -- 6.3.3 Technical Specifications (CEN/TS) -- 6.3.4 Technical Report (CEN/TR) -- References -- 7 Wood Pellet Characteristics (Definition, Determination and Internal Relation). , 7.1 Physical Properties -- 7.1.1 Unit Density -- 7.1.1.1 Determination -- Liquid Displacement Methods -- The Hydrostatic Method -- The Buoyancy Method -- Stereometric Methods -- Solid Displacement Method -- 7.1.1.2 Factor Effecting Pellet Density -- 7.1.2 Bulk Density -- 7.1.2.1 Determination -- 7.1.3 Particle Size and Distribution -- 7.1.3.1 Determination -- 7.1.4 Fines Percentage -- 7.1.4.1 Determination -- 7.1.5 Strength and Resistances -- 7.1.5.1 Compressive Resistance -- 7.1.5.2 Impact Resistance -- 7.1.5.3 Water Resistance -- 7.1.5.4 Abrasive Resistance (Durability) -- Durability Determination -- 7.1.5.5 Factor Effecting Strength and Durability -- Effect of Feed Constituents -- Effect of Feed Moisture Content -- Effect of Particle Size and Density -- Effect of Steam Conditioning/Preheating of Feed -- Effect of Binders/Additives -- Densification Equipment Variables -- 7.1.6 Particle Flow and Bridging Properties -- 7.1.6.1 Factor Effecting Bridging Properties -- 7.1.7 Calorific Value (MJ/Kg) -- 7.1.7.1 Calorific Value Determination -- Gross Calorific Value (GCV or HHV) -- Net Calorific Value (NCV or LHV) -- Net Calorific Value as Received -- Energy Density as Received -- 7.1.7.2 Factor Effecting Calorific Value -- 7.2 Chemical Properties (Proximate and Ultimate Analysis) -- 7.2.1 Moisture Content (%) -- 7.2.1.1 Determination -- 7.2.2 Ash Content -- 7.2.2.1 Ash Content Determination -- 7.2.2.2 Ash Melting Behavior -- 7.2.3 Element Analysis -- 7.2.3.1 Determination of Total Content of C, H and N (Based on CEN/TS 15104) -- 7.2.3.2 Determination of Total Content of Sulphur and Chlorine (Base on CEN/TS 15289) -- 7.2.3.3 Determination of Volatile Matter (Based on CEN/TS 15148) -- 7.2.3.4 Determination of Major Elements -- Digestion and Decomposition -- Detection Methods -- 7.2.3.5 Determination of Minor or Trace Elements. , 7.3 Interdependency Among Physical/Mechanical Properties -- References -- 8 Wood Pellet Combustion -- 8.1 Combustion Phases -- 8.1.1 Pre-ignition -- 8.1.2 Flaming Combustion -- 8.1.3 Smoldering Combustion -- 8.1.4 Glowing Combustion (Char Combustion) -- 8.2 Large Scale Pellet Heating System -- 8.3 Domestic Combustion System -- 8.4 Storage -- 8.5 Feeding System -- 8.5.1 Feeding from Storage Chamber to Hopper of Burner -- 8.5.2 Feeding from Hopper of Burner to Combustion Cup -- 8.6 Combustion Chamber -- 8.6.1 Fuel Dosage Control -- 8.6.2 Oxygen Supply -- 8.6.3 Lambda Parameter -- 8.6.4 Ignition Method -- 8.6.5 Proper Temperature -- 8.6.6 Thermostat -- 8.6.7 Suitable Mixing -- 8.6.8 Retention Time -- 8.6.9 Suitable Chamber Size -- 8.6.10 Burn Pot and Ash Removal System -- 8.7 Flue Gas Outlet and Chimneys -- 8.7.1 Factors in Choosing Venting System -- 8.8 Variable Affecting a Combustion System Performance -- 8.9 Boiler Efficiency -- References -- 9 Wood Pellet Emissions -- 9.1 Total Emission -- 9.2 Chemical Emissions (Off-Gassing) -- 9.3 Physical Emissions -- 9.4 Emission Factor -- 9.5 Emission Generation -- 9.5.1 Emission During Pellet Production Process -- 9.5.2 Emission During Storage and Transportation -- 9.5.2.1 Formation of Alkanals and Alkyl Aldehyde -- 9.5.2.2 Formation of Carbon Monoxide -- 9.5.3 Emission During Combustion Process -- 9.5.3.1 NOx -- 9.5.3.2 CO2 and CO -- 9.5.3.3 SOx -- 9.5.3.4 Volatile Organic Compound (VOCs) -- 9.5.3.5 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) -- 9.5.3.6 Semi-volatile Compounds -- 9.5.3.7 Persistent Organic Pollutants (Pops) -- 9.5.3.8 Dioxin -- 9.5.3.9 Hcb -- 9.5.3.10 PCBs -- 9.5.3.11 Heavy Metals (HM) Emission -- 9.5.3.12 Particular Matters (PM) -- 9.5.3.13 Ash -- Main Ash Forming Elements -- Variable Effecting Ash Formation -- Raw Material Variables -- Operating Variables -- References.

Note: Includes bibliographical references and index , Front Matter; MS Lesions in T2-Weighted Images; MS Lesions in Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery Images; Gadolinium Enhancing Lesions in Multiple Sclerosis; T1 Hypointense Lesions (Black Holes); Multiple Sclerosis and Brain Atrophy; Pitfalls in the Depiction of MS Lesions on Conventional MRI; Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Spinal Cord in Multiple Sclerosis; Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis; Differential Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis; Back Matter

Note: Description based on publisher supplied metadata and other sources