Note: Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Introduction -- Contents -- Contributors -- Part I: Sex Differences in Diabetes and Obesity -- Epidemiology of Gender Differences in Diabetes and Obesity -- Introduction -- Gender Differences in Glucose Homeostasis -- Gender Differences in Type 2 Diabetes -- Gender Differences in Type 1 Diabetes -- Gender Differences in Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity -- Conclusions -- References -- Sex Differences in Body Composition -- Introduction -- Abdominal Adipose Tissue -- Muscle Mass -- Intramyocellular Lipids -- Intrahepatic Lipids -- Pericardial Adipose Tissue -- Neck Adipose Tissue -- Brown Adipose Tissue -- Tongue Adipose Tissue -- Summary -- References -- Cellular Mechanisms Driving Sex Differences in Adipose Tissue Biology and Body Shape in Humans and Mouse Models -- Introduction -- Sex Differences in Fat Distribution Are Genetically Regulated -- Few Studies Directly Compare Sex Differences in the Adipose Tissue Transcriptome -- Recent Advances in Understanding Sex Differences in Fat Accumulation -- Sex Differences in Regional Adipocyte Metabolism -- Recent Advances in Understanding Adipose Tissue Cellularity, Growth, and Remodeling -- Adipose Tissue Expansion via Hyperplasia Depends on the Recruitment of Adipose Progenitor Cells -- Orchestration of Adipose Hyperplasia, Hypertrophy, and Remodeling in Male and Female Adipose Tissues -- Expanding the Expandability Hypothesis -- Sex Differences in the Cellularity of Specific Human Adipose Depots: Relationships to Metabolic Dysfunction -- Mechanisms of Adipose Tissue Remodeling and Potential Importance for Depot and Sex Differences in Depot Growth and Metabolism -- Rodents as Models for Sex Differences in Human Adipose Biology -- Summary and Conclusion -- References -- Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus: Sex Differences in Insulin Action and Secretion -- Introduction. , Effect of Sex on Postprandial Glucose Metabolism -- Effect of Sex on Model Indices -- Effect of Sex on Glucose Effectiveness -- Summary -- Conclusion -- References -- The Role of Sex and Sex Hormones in Regulating Obesity-Induced Inflammation -- Sex Differences and Metabolic Disease -- Sex Differences in Body Fat Distribution -- Obesity-Induced Meta-inflammation -- Obesity-Induced Meta-inflammation in Males -- Resident and Recruited Adipose Tissue Macrophages with Obesity in Males -- Sex Differences in Meta-inflammation -- Sex Differences in Innate Immunity -- Sex Differences in Metabolically Induced Inflammation -- Role of Sex Hormones in Obesity-Induced Inflammation -- Estrogens in Obesity-Induced Inflammation -- Role of Androgens in Obesity-Induced Inflammation -- Summary -- References -- Sex Differences in Leptin Control of Cardiovascular Function in Health and Metabolic Diseases -- Introduction -- Historical View -- Sexual Dimorphism in Leptin Secretion -- Physiological Role of Leptin: Control of Cardiovascular Function -- Leptin and Sympathetic Control of Blood Pressure -- Leptin Control of Blood Pressure in Male Animals -- Leptin Control of Blood Pressure in Female Animals -- Leptin Control of Blood Pressure and Sympathetic Tone in Men and Women -- Leptin Control of Renal Function -- Leptin Control of Vascular Function -- Leptin Contribution to Obesity-related Cardiovascular Disease -- Human Evidence -- Mechanisms Linking Hyperleptinemia to Hypertension in Obese Males and Females -- Aldosterone in Obesity-related Hypertension -- Sex Differences in Selective Leptin Resistance in Obesity -- Conclusion and Clinical Perspective -- References -- Sex Effects at the Ramparts: Nutrient- and Microbe-Mediated Regulation of the Immune-Metabolic Interface -- The Microbiome. , Dietary Compounds and Derivative Metabolites Influence the Gut Microbiome and Host Immune System -- Vitamin D -- Vitamin A -- Dietary Lipids -- Receptors for Dietary Lipids -- Mechanisms of Lipid Receptor Effects on Immune Pathways -- Role of PPARs -- Roles of LXR and FXR -- Dietary Lipids and the Gut Microbiome in Metabolic Disease -- PPAR in Immunity: Sex Effects on Therapeutic Targets -- Summary -- References -- Sexual Dimorphism and Estrogen Action in Mouse Liver -- The Role of Chance in Scientific Discovery -- Regulation of the Transcriptional Activity of the Estrogen Receptor in the Liver -- From Genes to Function, in Search of the Role Played by the Hepatic ER in the Control of Liver Activities -- Liver ERα Integrates Metabolic and Reproductive Functions in Mammals -- The Delicate Balance of Energy Metabolism and Reproduction in Female Mammals -- Liver, the Sexually Dimorphic Organ "Par Excellence" -- Health Consequences for the Dimorphic Hepatic Functions in Humans -- References -- Sex Differences in Muscle Wasting -- Introduction -- Age-Related Muscle Wasting: Sarcopenia -- Sex Differences in Sarcopenia -- Muscle Mass and Body Composition -- Muscle Strength and Quality -- Physical Function -- Age-Related Changes in Testosterone -- Age-Related Changes in Estrogens -- Sex as a Factor Modulating Response to Therapies -- Testosterone and Anabolic Steroids -- Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators (SARMs) -- Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and Its Sulfate Ester (DHEAS) -- Growth Hormone (GH) and Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I (IGF-I) -- Ghrelin and Ghrelin Mimetics -- Disease-Related Muscle Wasting: Cachexia -- Cancer -- Sex Differences in Incidence and Mechanisms of Muscle Wasting -- Sex Differences in Therapeutic Effects -- Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder (COPD) -- Sex Differences in Incidence and Mechanisms of Muscle Wasting. , Sex Differences in Therapeutic Effects -- Chronic Heart Failure -- Sex Differences in Incidence and Mechanisms of Muscle Wasting -- Sex Differences in Therapeutic Effects -- End-Stage Renal Disease/Chronic Kidney Disease -- Sex Differences in Incidence and Mechanisms of Muscle Wasting -- Sex Differences in Therapeutic Effects -- Liver Disease -- Sex Differences in Incidence and Mechanisms of Muscle Wasting -- Sex Differences in Therapeutic Effects -- Summary and Conclusion -- References -- Origins and Functions of the Ventrolateral VMH: A Complex Neuronal Cluster Orchestrating Sex Differences in Metabolism and Behavior -- Introduction -- The VMH Mediates Sex Differences in Energy Expenditure -- VMHvl Development -- Sex Differences in Energy Expenditure -- Excitatory Activity in VMH Neurons and Sex Differences -- Future Directions -- References -- Part II: Role of Estrogens in Metabolic Homeostasis -- Menopause, Estrogens, and Glucose Homeostasis in Women -- Introduction -- Does Menopause Alter Glucose Homeostasis? -- Effect of MHT on Diabetic Prevention -- Effect of MHTs on Insulin Secretion and Sensitivity -- MHT Improvement in Insulin Sensitivity -- MHT Improvement in Insulin Secretion -- Conclusions and Future Directions -- References -- Role of Estrogens in the Regulation of Liver Lipid Metabolism -- Introduction -- Mechanisms of Estrogen Signaling in the Liver -- Hormone Treatment and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in Postmenopausal Women -- Lack of Estrogen Signaling Promotes Liver TG Accumulation and Leads to Hepatic Insulin Resistance -- Estrogens and the Physiologic Regulation of Liver Lipid Metabolism Through ER Alpha -- Estrogen Signaling Limits Liver Fat Accumulation by Reducing de novo Lipogenesis in the Liver -- Estrogen Regulation of Factors Indirectly Affecting Liver Lipid Metabolism. , Mouse-Human Differences in Estrogen-Regulated Liver Lipid Metabolism and Implications for Disease -- Selective Estrogen Delivery Approaches and Liver Lipid Metabolism -- Estrogen Regulation of Liver Cholesterol Uptake and Reverse Cholesterol Transport -- Regulation of Hepatic Cholesterol Biosynthesis by Estrogens -- Regulation of Hepatic Cholesterol Uptake by Estrogens -- Estrogens Protect Against Fatty Liver and Hepatic Insulin Resistance in Males -- Conclusions and Future Directions -- References -- The Role of Skeletal Muscle Estrogen Receptors in Metabolic Homeostasis and Insulin Sensitivity -- Overview: Menopause, Sex Hormones, and Metabolic Disease -- Estrogen Receptors: Structure and Function -- ERα/ESR1 and Its Role in Regulating Whole-Body Metabolism -- The Role of Muscle ERα in the Regulation of Mitochondrial Function -- Conclusions and Perspectives -- References -- Estrogens and Body Weight Regulation in Men -- Introduction -- Estrogen Production and Metabolism -- Genetic Mutations in Men and Mice -- Central Mechanisms of Estrogen-Mediated Body Weight Regulation -- Adipose-Specific Mechanisms of Estrogen-Mediated Body Weight Regulation -- Other Peripheral Mechanisms of Estrogen-Mediated Body Weight Regulation -- The Immunomodulatory Effects of Estradiol -- Estrogens Beyond 17β-Estradiol: Estrone and 17α-Estradiol -- Estrogen and Obesity in Men: Too Much or Too Little? -- Clinical Intervention Studies -- Implications for Clinical Practice -- References -- Estradiol Regulation of Brown Adipose Tissue Thermogenesis -- Introduction -- Metabolic Effects of Estrogens -- BAT Thermogenesis and Contribution to the Energy Balance -- Peripheral E2 Regulation of BAT Thermogenesis -- Central E2 Regulation of BAT Thermogenesis -- Conclusions -- References -- Brain Estrogens and Feeding Behavior -- Introduction. , Interactions Between E2 and Other Appetite-Regulatory Signals.