Note: Literaturangaben. - Mit 99 Abb. u. 5 Tab , Literaturangaben

Note: Front Cover -- European Mires -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- List of Contributors -- Preface -- Chapter 1. The Classification of Mires: an Introduction -- Some General Considerations -- Classification of Mires in Europe -- References -- Chapter 2. Key to Finnish Mire Types -- Preface -- Introduction -- Guidelines for the Use of the Keys -- Ecological Variables -- Regional Distribution of the Mire Complex Types -- The Finnish Mire Complexes and Mire Type System: An Example in Detail of This Classification -- The Species List -- Mire Type Identification Key -- I Spruce mires (1a-c) -- II Räme vegetation (hummock-level bogs/pine mires) (la-b) -- III Neva vegetation (poor fens/flark- or intermediate-level bogs) (la-c) -- IV Rich fens (la-b) -- V Combination types (la-b) -- VI Swamps (la-c) -- VII Spring vegetation and seepage areas (la-b) -- Fertility Indices and Fertility Classes of the Mire Types -- Acknowledgments -- Glossary of Terms -- References -- Appendix -- Chapter 3. Estonian Bogs: Plant Cover, Succession and Classification -- Introduction -- Different approaches to the description of bog plant communities -- Heterogeneity of the Sphagnum cover -- Development of hummocks and hummock ridges -- Hollow and pool development -- Mire sites -- Location of sites in bogs and bog size classes -- Mire systems -- The problem of regional division (regionalization) -- References -- Chapter 4. The mire types of the German Democratic Republic -- Introduction -- Hydrologic-biogenetical classification -- Ecological mire types -- On the age of the hydrologic-biogenetical mire types -- References -- Chapter 5. The Vegetation and Development of Central European Mires -- Introduction -- General conditions for the existence of mires -- Position of the Central European mires among other bogs and fens of Europe -- The present vegetation. , Development and stratigraphy -- Summary -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 6. The Vegetation and Development of Blanket Mires -- Blanket Mire Vegetation -- The Blanket Mire Complex -- Stratigraphy of Blanket Mires -- Pollen Diagrams from Blanket Mires -- References -- Chapter 7. British Fens: A Review -- Introduction -- Basin Fens -- Valley Fens -- Spring Fens and Soakways -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 8. Welsh Mires: their range of form- a descriptive account -- Introduction -- Intersite Relationships -- Pressures and Changes -- References -- Chapter 9. Wetland communities in Ireland: a phytosociological review -- Introduction -- Sources and Methodology -- Wetland Communities -- Discussion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Appendix -- Index.

Note: Intro -- TOC -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- Ch 1: Geography of Wetlands -- Ch 2: Geology of Wetlands -- Ch 3: The Wetland Ecosystem -- Ch 4: Wetland Biodiversity -- Ch 5: Wetlands in History -- Ch 6: Uses of Wetlands -- Ch 7: The Future of Wetlands -- Glossary -- Bibliography and Further Reading -- Web Sites -- Index.

Note: Biogeography -- Contents -- Preface -- 1 Introduction to biogeography -- Order of chapters -- Further reading -- References -- 2 A history of biogeography -- Lessons from the past -- Ecological versus historical biogeography, and plants versus animals -- Biogeography and Creation -- Distribution of life today -- Evolutionea flawed and dangerous idea! -- Enter Darwin -- World maps: the biogeographical regions of plants and animals -- Getting around the world -- The origins of modern historical biogeography -- The development of ecological biogeography -- Living together -- Marine biogeography -- Island biogeography -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 3 Patterns of biodiversity -- How many species are there? -- Gradients of diversity -- Biodiversity hotspots -- Diversity in time -- Marine biodiversity -- Dynamic biodiversity -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 4 Patterns of distribution -- Limits of distribution -- Overcoming the barriers -- A successful family: the daisies (Asteraceae) -- Patterns of dragonflies -- Magnolias: evolutionary relicts -- Climatic relicts -- Endemic organisms -- Physical limitations -- Environmental gradients -- Interaction of factors -- Species interaction -- Invasion -- Reducing competition -- Migration -- Predators and prey -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 5 Communities and ecosystems -- The community -- The ecosystem -- Ecosystems and biodiversity -- Biotic assemblages on a global scale -- Patterns of climate -- Modelling biomes and climate -- Biomes in a changing world -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 6 The source of novelty -- Natural selection -- Darwin's explanation and Darwi's finches -- Controlling forces within the organism -- From populations to species -- Polyploids -- Barriers to interbreeding -- Competition for life. , The 'theory' of natural selection -- Controversies and evolutionary theory -- Evolution and the human race(s) -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 7 Life, death and evolution on islands -- Types of island -- Getting there: problems of access -- Dying there: problems of survival -- Integrating the data: the Theory of Island Biogeography -- Second thoughts about the Theory -- The Theory of Island Biogeography and the design of nature reserves -- Starting afresh: the story of Rakata -- The coastal environment -- Life inland -- Evolving there: opportunities for adaptive radiation -- The Hawaiian Islands -- Mechanisms of arrival -- Evolutionary radiations within the Hawaiian Islands -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 8 Living in the past -- Plate tectonics -- Evidence for past geographies -- Early land life on the moving continents -- One worldefor a while -- Rise of the flowering plants -- Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic changes in geography, ocean currents and climate -- Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic floral changes -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 9 The geography of life today -- Mammals: the final patterns -- The distribution of flowering plants today -- Mammalian versus flowering plant geography: comparisons and contrasts -- The Old World tropics: Africa, India and South-East Asia -- Africa -- The Cape flora -- Madagascar -- India and South-East Asia -- Australia -- New Zealand -- The West Indies -- South America -- Late Cretaceous/Early Cenozoic -- Later in the Cenozoic -- Late Cenozoic/Pleistocene -- The Northern Hemisphere: Holarctic mammals and Boreal plants -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 10 Ice and change -- Climatic wiggles -- Interglacials and interstadials -- Biological changes in the Pleistocene -- The last glacial -- Causes of glaciation -- The current interglacial: a false start. , Forests on the move -- The dry lands -- Changing sea levels -- Time of warmth -- Climatic cooling -- Recorded history -- Summry -- Further reading -- References -- 11 Transforming the planet -- The emergence of humans -- Modern humans and the megafaunal extinctions -- Domestication and agriculture -- The biogeography of human parasitic diseases -- Environmental impact of early human cultures -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 12 Drawing lines in the water -- Zones in the ocean and upon the sea floor -- Basic biogeography of the seas -- The open-sea realm -- Dynamics of the ocean basins -- Patterns of life in the ocean waters: biomes and provinces within the oceans -- Patterns of life on the ocean floor -- Biogeography of hydrothermal vent faunas -- The shallow-sea realm -- Faunal breaks within the shelf faunas -- Coastal faunas of islands -- Trans-oceanic links and barriers between shelf faunas -- Latitudinal patterns in the shelf faunas -- Coral reefs -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 13 Interpreting the past: I. Molecular and isotopic biogeography -- The molecules of life -- DNA, RNA, enzymes and phylogeny -- The molecular clock -- Molecular evolution and bird biogeography -- Human biogeography and molecular methods -- Population crashes, bottlenecks and catastrophes -- Isotopes in biogeography -- Isotopes in biogeochemical cycles -- New horizons -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 14 Interpreting the past: II. Principles and practice -- The great divide: dispersal versus vicariance -- Centres of dispersal and centres of origin -- Current methods of biogeographical analysis -- Phylogenetic biogeography -- Phylogeography -- Cladistic biogeography -- Generalized tracks -- Parsimony analysis of endemicity -- Endemicity and Pleistocene problems -- The 'New Zealand school' of panbiogeography -- Palaeogeography. , Summary -- Further reading -- References -- 15 Foretelling the future -- The human population -- The changing climate -- Nitrogen and sulphur overload -- Other pollutants -- Biogeographical consequences of global change -- Population declines and extinctions -- Changing communities and biomes -- Where do we go from here? -- Summary -- Further reading -- References -- Index.

Note: Intro -- TOC -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- Ch 1: Geography of the Tundra -- Ch 2: Geology of the Tundra -- Ch 3: The Tundra Ecosystem -- Ch 4: Biodiversity of the Tundra -- Ch 5: History of the Tundra -- Ch 6: Uses of the Tundra -- Ch 7: The Future of the Tundra -- Glossary -- Further Reading -- Web Sites -- Index.

Note: Intro -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- 1 Climate and Tropical Forests -- 2 Geology of the Tropical Forests -- 3 Types of Tropical Forest -- 4 The Tropical Forest Ecosystem -- 5 Biodiversity of the Tropical Forests -- 6 Biology of the Tropical Forests: Plants -- 7 Biology of the Tropical Forests: Animals -- 8 Ancient History of Tropical Forests -- 9 People in the Tropical Forests -- 10 The Value of Tropical Forests -- 11 The Future of Tropical Forests -- 12 General Conclusions -- Glossary -- Further Reading -- Web Sites -- Index.

Note: Intro -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- Climate of the Tundra -- Geology of the Tundra -- Types of Tundra -- The Tundra Ecosystem -- Biology of the Tundra -- Biodiversity of the Tundra -- Geological and Biological History of the Tundra -- People in the Tundra -- The Value of the Tundra -- The Future of the Tundra -- General Conclusions -- Glossary -- Further Reading -- Web Sites -- Index.

Note: Cover -- Contents -- Preface -- Notes for the Reader -- PART ONE: Fundamentals -- 1. On the Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation by Atoms andMolecules -- 1.1 What is electromagnetic radiation? -- 1.2 Atoms are electrically polarized by electromagnetic radiation -- 1.3 Oscillating dipoles emit electromagnetic radiation -- 1.4 The electrons in atoms and molecules scatter X-rays as though they were unbound -- 1.5 The scattering of X-rays by molecules depends on atomic positions -- 1.6 Radiation detectors measure energy, not field strength -- 1.7 If the radiation being scattered is unpolarized, the polarization correction depends only on scattering angle -- 1.8 The coherence length of the radiation used in scattered experiments affects the accuracy with which I[sub(d)] can be measured -- 1.9 Measurement accuracy also depends on transverse coherence length -- Problems -- Appendix 1.1 Exponential notation, complex numbers, and Argand diagrams -- Appendix 1.2 The polarization correction for unpolarized radiation -- 2. Molecular Scattering and Fourier Transforms -- 2.1 F(S) is a function of three angular variables -- 2.2 Fourier series are a useful way to represent structures -- 2.3 In the limit of d = & -- #8734 -- , the Fourier series becomes the Fourier transformation -- 2.4 The Great Experiment -- 2.5 The shift theorem leads to a simple expression for the scattering of molecules -- 2.6 The scaling theorem: Big things in real space are small things in reciprocal space -- 2.7 The square wave and the Dirac delta function -- 2.8 Multiplication in real and reciprocal space: The convolution theorem -- 2.9 Instrument transfer functions and convolutions -- 2.10 The autocorrelation theorem -- 2.11 Rayleigh's theorem -- Problems -- 3. Scattering by Condensed Phases -- 3.1 The forward scatter from macroscopic samples is 90& -- #176. , out of phase with respect to the radiation that induces it -- 3.2 Scattering alters the phase of all the radiation that passes through a transparent sample -- 3.3 Phase changes are indistinguishable from velocity changes -- 3.4 Polarizabilities do not have to be real numbers -- 3.5 Atomic polarization effects are small -- 3.6 The frequency dependence of polarizabilities can be addressed classically -- 3.7 When the imaginary part of & -- #945 -- is large, energy is absorbed -- 3.8 The refractive index of substances for X-rays is less than 1.0 -- 3.9 The wavelength dependences of the processes that control light and X-ray polarizabilities are different -- 3.10 On the frequency dependence of atomic scattering factors for X-rays -- 3.11 Real X-ray absorption and dispersion spectra do not look the way classical theory predicts -- 3.12 The imaginary component of f can be determined by measuring mass absorption coefficients -- 3.13 Scattering can be described using scattering lengths and cross sections -- 3.14 Neutron scattering can be used to study molecular structure -- 3.15 Electrons are strongly scattered by atoms and molecules -- 3.16 Electrons are scattered inelastically by atoms -- Problems -- Appendix 3.1 Forward scatter from a thin slab -- Appendix 3.2 A classical model for the motion of electrons in the presence of electromagnetic radiation -- Appendix 3.3 Energy absorption and the imaginary part of & -- #945 -- -- PART TWO: Crystallography -- 4. On the Diffraction of X-rays by Crystals -- 4.1 The Fourier transform of a row of delta functions is a row of delta functions -- 4.2 Sampling in reciprocal space corresponds to replication in real space (and vice versa) -- 4.3 Crystals can be described as convolutions of molecules with lattices -- 4.4 Lattices "amplify" Fourier transforms. , 4.5 The Nyquist theoremtells you how often to sample functions when computing Fourier transforms -- 4.6 Lattices divide space into unit cells -- 4.7 The minimal element of structure in any unit cell is its asymmetric unit -- 4.8 The transform of a three-dimensional lattice is nonzero only at points in reciprocal space that obey the von Laue equations -- 4.9 The Fourier transforms of crystals are usually written using unit cell vectors as the coordinate system -- 4.10 Bragg's law provides a second way to describe crystalline diffraction patterns -- 4.11 Von Laue's integers are Miller indices -- 4.12 Ewald's construction provides a simple tool for understanding crystal diffraction -- Problems -- Appendix 4.1 The Bravais lattices -- Appendix 4.2 On the relationship between unit cells in real space and unit cells in reciprocal space -- 5. On the Appearance of Crystalline Diffraction Patterns -- 5.1 Diffraction data are collected from macromolecular crystals using the oscillation method -- 5.2 Measured intensities must be corrected for systematic error -- 5.3 Radiation damage kills crystals -- 5.4 Diffraction patterns tend to be centrosymmetric -- 5.5 Anomalous diffraction can provide useful information about the chemical identities of atoms in electron density maps -- 5.6 Anomalous diffraction effects can be used to determine the absolute hand of chiral molecules -- 5.7 Crystal symmetry results in reciprocal space symmetry -- 5.8 Real crystals are not perfectly ordered -- 5.9 Disorder weakens Bragg reflections -- 5.10 Disorder makes crystals scatter in directions that are not allowed by von Laue's equations -- 5.11 Thermal diffuse scatter need not be isotropic -- 5.12 Average B-factors can be determined directly from diffraction data -- 5.13 Most crystals are mosaic. , 5.14 A single crystal structure can reveal the alternative conformations of a macromolecule that is polymorphic -- Problems -- Appendix 5.1 Debye-Waller factors and diffuse scattering -- Appendix 5.2 Correlated motions and diffuse scatter in one dimension -- Appendix 5.3 Random walks in two dimensions -- 6. Solving the Phase Problem -- 6.1 The phases of reflections are measured by comparing them to a standard -- 6.2 Macromolecular diffraction patterns can be phased by adding heavy atoms to crystals -- 6.3 The number of high-Z atoms per unit cell needed for phasing is small -- 6.4 The heavy atom isomorphous replacement strategy for phasing requires the comparison of intensities measured from different crystals -- 6.5 Anomalous data can also provide phase information -- 6.6 Patterson functions display the interatomic distances and directions of a crystal -- 6.7 Macromolecular crystal structures cannot be solved using Patterson functions alone -- 6.8 Heavy atom sites in derivatized crystals can be located using difference Pattersons -- 6.9 Atomic coordinates can be deduced from the Harker sections of the Patterson functions -- 6.10 Multiple-wavelength anomalous diffraction combines anomalous and heavy atom phase determination in a single experiment -- 6.11 Experimental error complicates the experimental determination of phases -- 6.12 Experimental phase data specify phase probability distributions -- 6.13 The impact of phase errors on electron density maps can be controlled -- 6.14 The likelihood that the experiments done to phase a diffraction pattern have produced reliable data can be assessed statistically -- 6.15 Diffraction patterns can be phased by molecular replacement -- 6.16 Molecular replacement searches can be divided into a rotational part and a translational part -- Problems. , Appendix 6.1 Heavy atom difference Pattersons and anomalous difference Pattersons -- 7. Electron Density Maps and Molecular Structures -- 7.1 Experimental electron densitymaps display the variation in electron density within the unit cell with respect to the average -- 7.2 Electron density maps are contoured in units of sigma -- 7.3 The point-to-point resolution of an electron density map is roughly 1/|S|[sub(max)] -- 7.4 How high is high enough? -- 7.5 Macromolecular electron density maps having resolutions worse than ~3.5 & -- #197 -- are difficult to interpret chemically -- 7.6 Solvent may be visible in macromolecular electron density maps -- 7.7 Initial models must be refined -- 7.8 R-factors are used to measure the consistency of molecular models with measured diffraction data -- 7.9 Free-R is useful tool for validating refinements -- 7.10 Phases rule -- 7.11 Regionswhere models do not correspond to electron densitymaps can be identified using difference electron density maps -- 7.12 Experimental electron density maps can be improved by phase modification and extension -- 7.13 Solvent flattening and the Nyquist theorem -- 7.14 Let the buyer beware -- Problems -- Appendix 7.1 The inverse Fourier transform of the spherical aperture function -- Appendix 7.2 Estimating the R-factor of crystal structures that are perfect nonsense -- Appendix 7.3 The difference Fourier -- PART THREE: Noncrystallographic Diffraction -- 8. Diffraction from Noncrystalline Samples -- 8.1 X-ray microscopy can be done without lenses -- 8.2 The Fourier transform of a projection is a central section -- 8.3 Continuous transforms can be inverted by solvent flattening -- 8.4 Can the structures of macromolecules be solved at atomic resolution by X-ray imaging? -- 8.5 Solution-scattering patterns provide rotationally averaged scattering data. , 8.6 Solution-scattering experiments determine length distributions and vice versa.

Note: Intro -- Table of Contents -- Preface -- Notes for the Reader -- Acknowledgements -- Part I: Matter -- Chapter One -- What is chemistry? -- Humans have been doing chemistry forever -- What is an element? -- The mysteries of fire and air resolved -- Chapter Two -- John Dalton's atom -- Atomic weights and molecular formulas -- The struggle to obtain reliable atomic weights -- Electricity -- Avogadro embraced, reliable atomic weights at last -- Chapter Three -- The invention of the periodic table -- The periodic table completed -- The periodic table today -- Chapter Four -- Ions and electrons -- The nucleus discovered -- Why aren't atomic weight perfect integers? -- Chapter Five -- The planetary atom -- Lewis and the covalent bond -- Extending the Lewis formalism -- Some Final Comments -- Chapter Six -- Planck and Bohr -- De Broglie -- The wave equation -- Big atoms and the Pauli principle -- Chapter Seven -- On the form of the table -- Ionization energies -- Electron affinity -- Electronegativity -- Chapter Eight -- Quantum mechanics explains the covalent bond -- Diatomic molecules -- Molecular Orbitals -- Valence bond theory and hybrid atomic orbitals -- Multi-atom molecular orbitals -- Chapter Nine -- Steric numbers -- Isomers -- Coordination complexes -- Valence bond theory and coordination complexes -- Crystal field theory -- Ligand field theory -- Chapter Ten -- Phases -- On the sizes of atoms and molecules -- The dispersion force -- Ionic solids -- Polar solids -- Hydrogen bonds -- Covalent solids -- Hybrid Solids -- Metals -- Liquids and glasses -- Part II: Energy -- Chapter Eleven -- Thermodynamics and the steam engine -- The difference between heat and temperature -- Caloric overthrown -- The kinetic theory of gases -- Chapter Twelve -- The first law at last -- Chemical Calorimetry -- Heat capacities -- Hess's law -- Chapter Thirteen. , Water wheels and steam engines -- Carnot -- The second law at last -- Entropy -- The molecular meaning of entropy -- Reaction entropies and the third law -- Chapter Fourteen -- Gibbs and Helmholtz free energies -- Free energies and equilibrium constants -- Thermodynamic cycles and temperature changes -- Solutions 101 -- Equilibrium constants in solution -- Non-ideal solutions -- Le Chatelier and the law of mass action -- Chapter Fifteen -- Half-cells -- Standard potentials -- Chapter Sixteen -- Electrolytes -- Solubility product constants -- Acids and bases -- Titrations -- Buffers -- Chapter Seventeen -- Phases and phase transitions -- The thermodynamics of phase changes -- Molecular weights from phase data -- Phase diagrams -- The phase rule -- Chapter Eighteen -- Rate constants and equilibrium constants -- the basics -- Measuring rate laws and rate constants -- Reaction order -- How long until equilibrium? -- Reaction mechanisms -- The effect of temperature on reaction rates -- Catalysis -- Part III: Selected Topics -- Chapter Nineteen -- Carbon and the chemistry of life -- Alkanes -- Other hydrocarbons -- Alkane-like molecules that are not hydrocarbons -- Why is carbon special? -- Synthetic polymers -- Petrochemicals -- Chapter Twenty -- The chemical composition of organisms -- Proteins -- Nucleic acids -- Polysaccharides -- The chemistry of membranes -- The structure of membranes -- The three-dimensional structures of proteins and nucleic acids -- Small molecule metabolism -- ATP -- Energy Metabolism -- Macromolecular metabolism -- Chapter Twenty-One -- The Earth's energy budget -- The greenhouse effect -- Global warming -- Greenhouse gases -- Fossil fuels -- Carbon dioxide -- The chemistry of CO2 solutions -- Ozone -- Chapter Twenty-Two -- Batteries -- Fuel cells -- The hydrogen economy -- Chapter Twenty-Three. , The thermodynamics and kinetics of nitrogen fixation -- Nitrogen fixation in nature -- The role of nitrogen in agriculture -- The role of nitrogen in industry -- Haber-Bosch -- Chapter Twenty-Four -- The geology of iron -- The production of iron -- Steel -- The iron-carbon phase diagram -- On the different kinds of iron and steel -- Rust -- Chapter Twenty_Five -- Aluminum -- Copper and its alloys -- Zinc -- Lead -- Magnesium -- Titanium -- Gold -- Chapter Twenty-Six -- Binding energies: fusion and fission -- The kinetics of nuclear reactions -- Radioactive series -- Radiometric dating -- Other kinds of decay processes and radiation -- Nuclear reactors: the technology -- Nuclear reactors: the politics -- On the uses of radioisotopes -- Appendices -- Appendix 1 -- Appendix 2 -- Appendix 3 -- Appendix 4 -- Appendix 5 -- Appendix 6 -- Appendix 7 -- Appendix 8 -- Appendix 9 -- Appendix 10 -- Appendix 11 -- Index.

Note: 1. Aufl. u.d.T.: Moore, Peter D.: An illustrated guide to pollen analysis , Includes bibliographical references (p. 192-205) and index