Anmerkung: Cover -- Half-title -- Series information -- Title page -- Copyright information -- Dedication -- Table of contents -- List of contributors -- General Acknowledgments -- 1 Introduction -- References -- 2 Understanding Mars and Its Atmosphere -- 2.1 In the Beginning -- 2.2 1962-1972: A Decade of Change With the First Wave of Spacecraft Exploration -- 2.3 Viking: the Second Wave of Spacecraft Exploration of Mars -- 2.4 The Third Wave of Spacecraft Exploration of Mars -- 2.5 Mars Atmospheric Phenomena: Where Are We Now? -- 2.5.1 Early Mars -- 2.5.2 Middle Mars -- 2.5.3 Modern Mars: the Present Atmosphere -- 2.6 Basic Parameters and Nomenclature -- 2.6.1 Temperature -- 2.6.2 Clouds -- 2.6.3 Dust Storms and Mars Years -- 2.7 Summary -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- References -- 3 History of Mars Atmosphere Observations -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Pre-Viking Observations -- 3.3 Viking and Post-Viking Years -- 3.3.1 Viking Orbiters -- 3.3.2 Viking Landers -- 3.3.3 Phobos 2 -- 3.3.4 Hubble Space Telescope -- 3.4 Ground-Based Spectroscopy -- 3.5 Orbiters -- 3.5.1 Mars Global Surveyor -- 3.5.2 Mars Odyssey -- 3.5.3 Mars Express -- 3.5.4 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter -- 3.5.4.1 Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution -- 3.6 Landers and Rovers -- 3.6.1 Mars Pathfinder -- 3.6.2 Mars Exploration Rovers -- 3.6.3 Phoenix -- 3.6.4 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) -- 3.6.5 Descent Profiles -- 3.7 Looking to the Future -- References -- 4 Thermal Structure and Composition -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Thermal Structure -- 4.2.1 Overview of Mars Atmosphere Thermal Structure -- 4.2.2 Available Observations -- 4.2.2.1 Thermal Infrared Sounding -- 4.2.2.2 Radio Occultation Observations -- 4.2.2.3 Stellar Occultation Observations -- 4.2.2.4 Entry Profiles and Aerobraking -- 4.2.2.5 Observations From the Surface of Mars -- 4.2.3 Observed Thermal Structure. , 4.2.3.1 Lower Atmosphere Thermal Structure -- 4.2.3.2 Middle Atmosphere Thermal Structure -- 4.2.3.3 Global Mean and Extreme Temperatures -- 4.2.3.4 Diurnal Variations and Tides -- 4.2.3.5 Inter-Annual Variations -- 4.3 Composition -- 4.3.1 Surface Pressure -- 4.3.2 Nitrogen -- 4.3.3 Argon -- 4.3.4 Oxygen -- 4.3.5 Carbon Monoxide -- 4.3.6 Ozone -- 4.3.7 Hydrogen Peroxide -- 4.3.8 Hydrogen -- 4.3.9 Nitrogen Monoxide -- 4.3.10 Methane -- 4.3.11 Upper Limits of Other Trace Species -- 4.3.12 Isotopic Ratios -- 4.3.12.1 Carbon and Oxygen -- 4.3.12.2 Nitrogen and Noble Gases -- 4.3.12.3 Hydrogen -- 4.4 Reference Atmosphere -- 4.4.1 Standard Mars Atmosphere -- 4.4.2 Mars-GRAM -- 4.4.3 Mars Climate Database -- 4.5 Summary and Future Issues -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 5 Mars Clouds -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Specific Cloud Morphologies and Occurrences -- 5.3 The Global-Scale Distribution of Mars Water Ice Clouds -- 5.3.1 Aphelion Cloud Belt -- 5.3.2 Polar Hoods -- 5.3.3 High-Altitude Hazes -- 5.3.4 Inter-Annual Variability -- 5.4 Water Ice Clouds in the Lower Boundary Layer: Phoenix LIDAR Observations -- 5.5 Physical and Radiative Properties of Mars Water and CO2 Ice Clouds -- 5.5.1 Cloud Physical Properties -- 5.5.2 Cloud Radiative Properties -- 5.6 Simulating Water Ice Clouds in Mars General Circulation Models -- 5.6.1 Cloud Microphysics -- 5.6.2 Representation of Water Ice Clouds in Mars General Circulation Models -- 5.6.3 Dynamical Control of Global Cloud Structures on Mars -- 5.6.3.1 The Aphelion Cloud Belt -- 5.6.3.2 The Polar Hoods -- 5.6.4 Radiative Effects of Clouds and Thermal Tides -- 5.7 CO2 Ice Clouds in the Mars Atmosphere -- 5.7.1 Observations of CO2 Clouds -- 5.7.2 CO2 Cloud Formation Microphysics -- 5.7.3 Implications of CO2 Clouds for Early Mars Climates -- 5.8 Conclusions -- References. , 6 Radiative Process: Techniques and Applications -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Radiative Transfer Equation (RTE) -- 6.2.1 A Note on Units and Nomenclature -- 6.2.2 General Scalar Equation -- 6.2.3 Neglect of Polarization -- 6.2.4 Plane-Parallel Approximation -- 6.2.4.1 No (Internal) Source Function Approximation -- 6.2.4.2 Single-Scattering and Purely Absorbing Approximations -- 6.2.4.3 Two-Stream Approximations -- 6.2.4.4 Numerical Solutions -- (a) Discrete Ordinate Method -- (b) Spherical Harmonics Method (SHM) -- (c) Two-Stream Codes -- 6.2.5 Spherical Shell -- 6.2.5.1 Breakdown of Plane-Parallel Geometry -- 6.2.5.2 Numerical Solutions -- (a) Analytical Plus Approximation -- (b) Pseudo-Spherical Approximation -- (c) Spherical Treatment -- 6.2.6 Three-Dimensional (3D) Radiative Transfer -- 6.3 Sources of Atmospheric Absorption and Scattering -- 6.3.1 Atoms and Molecules - Scattering -- 6.3.1.1 Rayleigh Scattering -- 6.3.1.2 Raman Scattering -- 6.3.2 Atoms and Molecules - Absorption -- 6.3.2.1 Ultraviolet Cross-Sections -- (a) CO2 -- (b) O3 -- (c) Other UV Absorbers -- 6.3.2.2 Near-Infrared and Infrared Cross-Sections -- (a) Line-by-Line Technique -- (b) Band Models -- (c) Correlated-k Technique -- (d) Other Techniques -- 6.3.2.3 Clear-Air Molecular Transmittance Illustrations -- 6.3.3 Aerosols -- 6.3.3.1 RTE-Related Definitions -- (a) Ensemble of Identical Particles -- (b) Ensemble of Non-Identical Particles -- (c) Separate Ensembles -- 6.3.3.2 Particle Size Distributions -- 6.3.3.3 Calculation of Single-Particle Scattering Properties -- (a) Separation-of-Variables Method (SVM) -- (b) T-Matrix Method (TMM) -- (c) Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method (FDTDM) -- (d) Geometrical Optics Approximation (GOA) -- 6.3.3.4 The Importance of Non-Spherical Particles -- 6.3.3.5 Dust Aerosols -- (a) Refractive Indices -- (b) Shape -- (c) Size. , (d) Representative Radiative Properties -- 6.3.3.6 H2O Ice Aerosols -- (a) Refractive Indices -- (b) Shape -- (c) Size -- (d) Representative Radiative Properties -- 6.3.3.7 CO2 Ice Aerosols -- (a) Macroscopic Properties -- (b) Representative Radiative Properties -- 6.3.3.8 General Spatial/Temporal Distribution of Aerosols - Databases -- 6.4 Radiative Sources -- 6.4.1 Solar Spectrum -- 6.4.2 Thermal (LTE) and Non-LTE Emission -- 6.4.2.1 Thermal Versus Non-Thermal Emission Versus Airglow -- 6.4.2.2 Non-LTE Radiative Transfer -- (a) Statistical Equilibrium Equation -- (b) Non-LTE Radiative Transfer Equation -- (c) Difficulties and Approximate Solutions -- 6.4.2.3 Non-LTE Data and Modeling of the Martian Atmosphere -- 6.5 Energetic Particles -- 6.6 Applications -- 6.6.1 Global Climate Models (GCMs) -- 6.6.1.1 Aerosol Representation in Models -- 6.6.1.2 Simulated Heating Rates -- 6.6.1.3 Water Ice Clouds -- 6.6.1.4 Radiation Budget -- 6.6.1.5 Archetypical Flux Spectra -- 6.6.2 Remote Sensing and Radiative Transfer -- 6.6.2.1 Retrievals - Temperature Profiles -- 6.6.2.2 Retrievals - Aerosols -- (a) Column-Integrated Optical Depths -- (b) Macrophysical Retrievals -- 6.6.3 Non-Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium -- 6.6.3.1 NLTE Parameterizations for GCMs -- 6.6.3.2 Mesospheric Forcing of Thermal Tides -- 6.6.3.3 NLTE Radiative Damping of Gravity Waves -- 6.6.3.4 Mesospheric Winds From the 10 µm CO2 Bands -- 6.7 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 7 The Martian Planetary Boundary Layer -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Atmospheric Boundary Layer Physics -- 7.3 Comparison and Roles of Planetary Boundary Layers on Earth and Mars -- 7.3.1 Energy Budget of PBL and Surface -- 7.3.2 Boundary Layer Turbulence -- 7.3.3 Dust Devils and Dust Storms -- 7.3.4 The Influence of the PBL on Martian Weather and Climate -- 7.4 Recent and Current Missions and Observations. , 7.4.1 Surface In Situ Observations -- 7.4.1.1 Viking Landers' Meteorological Instrumentation -- 7.4.1.2 Mars Pathfinder Meteorological Instrumentation -- 7.4.1.3 Phoenix Meteorological Instrumentation -- 7.4.1.4 Mars Science Laboratory, First Results -- 7.4.2 Surface-Based Remote Sensing -- 7.4.2.1 Imaging Instruments -- 7.4.2.2 Mini-TES Instruments on the MERs -- 7.4.2.3 Phoenix LIDAR -- 7.4.3 Orbital Observations -- 7.4.3.1 Radio Occultation -- 7.4.3.2 Other Orbital Measurements -- 7.4.4 Use of Mars Lander Data to Validate Surface Layer Scaling Laws -- 7.5 Modeling the Martian Planetary Boundary Layer -- 7.5.1 Bulk and Mixing Length Parameterized Models of the Martian PBL -- 7.5.1.1 Physics of the Martian PBL as Revealed by First-Order Closure Models -- 7.5.2 TKE Closures for the Martian PBL -- 7.5.3 Large-Eddy Simulations of the Martian PBL -- 7.5.3.1 General Principles -- 7.5.3.2 LES Standard Settings -- 7.5.3.3 First Results -- 7.5.3.4 Recent Efforts and Perspectives -- 7.5.3.5 LES and Hazards for Mission Operations -- 7.6 Discussion and Outstanding Issues -- References -- 8 Mesoscale Meteorology -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 The Definition of the Mesoscale -- 8.2.1 Rossby Radius of Deformation -- 8.2.2 Richardson Number -- 8.2.3 Rossby Number -- 8.2.4 Energy Cascade -- 8.2.5 A Practical Definition -- 8.3 Mesoscale Models -- 8.3.1 Dynamical Cores -- 8.3.2 Physical Parameterizations -- 8.3.3 Initial and Boundary Conditions -- 8.3.4 Grid Nesting -- 8.4 Key Martian Mesoscale Systems -- 8.4.1 Near-Surface Mesoscale Phenomena -- 8.4.1.1 Thermal Circulations Related to Topography -- 8.4.1.2 Circulations Related to Thermal Contrasts -- 8.4.2 Mesoscale Waves -- 8.5 Clouds and Dust -- 8.5.1 Water Ice Clouds -- 8.5.2 Carbon Dioxide Ice Clouds -- 8.5.3 Dust Storms -- 8.6 Aeolian Processes -- 8.7 Mesoscale Model Applications -- References. , 9 The Global Circulation.