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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    A longitudinal study of the effects of adolescent cannabis use on high school completion (2003)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 98 (2003), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Objective  To examine the extent to which weekly cannabis use during mid-adolescence may increase the risk of early school-leaving.Setting  A prospective study of a general population sample of adolescents studied from ages 15–21 years in Melbourne, Australia.Method  Computer-assisted self-completion questionnaires and telephone interviews conducted in six waves at ages 15–18 and again at age 21 in a sample of 1601 male and female school students.Results  Weekly cannabis use, assessed prospectively, was associated with significantly increased risk of early school-leaving. This effect remained after adjustment for a range of prospectively assessed covariates including demographic characteristics, other substance use, psychiatric morbidity and antisocial behavior. There was suggestive evidence of an interaction between weekly cannabis use and age with the effects of weekly cannabis use on early school-leaving being strongest at the youngest ages and diminishing progressively with age.Conclusions  Early regular cannabis use (weekly use at age 15) is associated with increased risk of early school-leaving. These effects of regular cannabis use may diminish with increasing age and are likely to operate through the social context within which cannabis is used and obtained.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00356.x
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Methadone-related and heroin-related deaths among opiate users: methadone helps save lives (2003)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 98 (2003), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00348.x
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The prevalence and correlates of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) overdose among Australian users (2003)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 98 (2003), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aim  The aim of this study was to examine the correlates, context and risk perceptions regarding gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) overdose among a sample of recreational GHB users in Australia.Design  A cross-sectional survey of 76 GHB users who were administered a structured interview on GHB use. They were asked a series of questions regarding whether they had ever experienced a GHB overdose, the context of their most recent GHB overdose, and about their perceptions of the risks of GHB overdose.Findings  This sample of GHB users had not had a long or extensive experience with GHB use; despite this, half (53%) had experienced a GHB overdose. This sample of GHB users appeared to be well-educated, employed and a history of either drug treatment or incarceration was uncommon. There were no differences between those who had or had not overdosed in terms of socio-demographic characteristics, extent of other drug use or typical patterns of other drug use when using GHB. However, those who had overdosed on GHB had used it more times during their life-time, and had been using it for a longer period of time.Conclusions  GHB-related overdoses were common among a sample of GHB users who had only recently begun using the drug. The only apparent distinguishing factor between those who had and had not overdosed on GHB was the amount of experience with GHB use.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00265.x
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Evaluating explanations of the Australian ‘heroin shortage’ (2005)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 100 (2005), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aims  In this paper we outline and evaluate competing explanations for a heroin shortage that occurred in Australia during 2001 with an abrupt onset at the beginning of 2001.Methods  We evaluated each of the explanations offered for the shortage against evidence from a variety of sources: government reports, police and drug law enforcement documents and briefings, key informant (KI) interviews, indicator data and research data.Results  No similar shortage occurred at the same time in other markets (e.g. Vancouver, Canada or Hong Kong) whose heroin originated in the same countries as Australia’s. The shortage was due most probably to a combination of factors that operated synergistically and sequentially. The heroin market had grown rapidly in the late 1990s, perhaps helped by a decline in drug law enforcement (DLE) in Australia in the early 1990s that facilitated high-level heroin suppliers in Asia to establish large-scale importation heroin networks into Australia. This led to an increase in the availability of heroin, increasingly visible street-based drug markets, increased purity and decreased price of heroin around the country. The Australian heroin market was well established by the late 1990s, but it had a low profit margin with high heroin purity, and a lower price than ever before. The surge in heroin problems led to increased funding of the Australian Federal Police and Customs as part of the National Illicit Drug Strategy in 1998–99, with the result that a number of key individuals and large seizures occurred during 1999–2000, probably increasing the risks of large-scale importation. The combination of low profits and increased success of law enforcement may have reduced the dependability of key suppliers of heroin to Australia at a time when seized heroin was becoming more difficult to replace because of reduced supplies in the Golden Triangle. These factors may have reduced the attractiveness of Australia as a destination for heroin trafficking.Conclusions  The Australian heroin shortage in 2001 was due probably to a combination of factors that included increased effectiveness of law enforcement efforts to disrupt networks bringing large shipments of heroin from traditional source countries, and decreased capacity or willingness of major traffickers to continue large scale shipments to Australia.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01000.x
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Alcohol, cannabis and tobacco use among Australians: a comparison of their associations with other drug use and use disorders, affective and anxiety disorders, and psychosis (2001)
    Oxford, UK : Carfax Publishing, part of the Taylor & Francis Group
    Addiction 96 (2001), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aim. To compare relationships between alcohol, cannabis and tobacco and indicators of mental health problems in the general population. 
Method. A survey of a nationally representative sample of 10 641 Australian adults (the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being (NSMHWB)) provided data on alcohol, cannabis and tobacco use and mental health (DSM-IV anxiety disorders, affective disorders, other substance use disorders and screening positively for psychosis). 
Findings. Alcohol showed a "J-shaped" relationship with DSM-IV affective and anxiety disorders: alcohol users had lower rates of these problems than non-users of alcohol, while those meeting criteria for alcohol dependence had the highest rates. Tobacco and cannabis use were both associated with increased rates of all mental health problems examined. However, after controlling for demographics, neuroticism and other drug use, cannabis was not associated with anxiety or affective disorders. Alcohol dependence and tobacco use remained associated with both of these indicators of mental health. All three types of drug use were associated with higher rates of other substance use problems, with cannabis having the strongest association. 
Conclusions. The use of alcohol, tobacco and cannabis are associated with different patterns of co-morbidity in the general population.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961116037.x
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Patterns of ecstasy use in Australia: findings from a national household survey (2004)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 99 (2004), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aim  To examine the patterns, correlates and context of ‘recent’ (preceding 12 months) ecstasy use using data from a nationally representative sample of Australians interviewed in 2001.Design  Data were analysed from the 2001 National Drug Strategy Household Survey, a multi-stage probability sample of Australians aged 14 years or older. The focus was on ecstasy use among 14–19-year-olds and 20–29-year-olds, as the prevalence of recent use is highest among these groups. Recent ecstasy users were compared to those who had not used in the preceding 12 months and those who had never tried ecstasy (‘others’) on a range of demographic and drug use variables. Comparisons were also drawn between the patterns and context of ecstasy use of the two groups of recent ecstasy users (users aged between 14–19 and 20–29 years).Findings  In 2001, 6.1% of Australians aged 14 years or older reported life-time ecstasy use, and 2.9% reported recent use. One in 10 (10.4%) of 20–29-year-olds and 5.0% of 14–19-year-olds had used ecstasy recently. Although there were few demographic differences between recent users and others, compared to those who had not recently used ecstasy, recent ecstasy users were more likely to have used a range of other drugs. Although recent ecstasy users of both age groups could be characterized as polydrug users, 20–29-year-old users were more likely to use other drugs concurrently with ecstasy.Conclusions  Following cannabis and amphetamines, ecstasy is the third most widely used illicit drug in Australia. Other than a greater likelihood of having used other drugs, few demographic variables appear to distinguish recent ecstasy users from others. Australian users in their 20s use ecstasy within a context of greater polydrug use than those in their teens. Although most ecstasy users described a pattern of occasional use, minorities reported weekly use, and difficulties in reducing their use despite wishing to do so. There is a need to develop interventions to assist problematic ecstasy users to reduce their use should they wish to do so and to increase education about the potential risks of combining ecstasy with other drugs.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2003.00622.x
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The ratio of non-fatal to fatal heroin overdose (2003)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 98 (2003), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00474.x
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Exploring the association between cannabis use and depression (2003)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
    Addiction 98 (2003), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aim  To examine the evidence on the association between cannabis and depression and evaluate competing explanations of the association.Methods  A search of Medline, Psychinfo and EMBASE databases was conducted. All references in which the terms ‘cannabis’, ‘marijuana’ or ‘cannabinoid’, and in which the words ‘depression/depressive disorder/depressed’, ‘mood’, ‘mood disorder’ or ‘dysthymia’ were collected. Only research studies were reviewed. Case reports are not discussed.Results  There was a modest association between heavy or problematic cannabis use and depression in cohort studies and well-designed cross-sectional studies in the general population. Little evidence was found for an association between depression and infrequent cannabis use. A number of studies found a modest association between early-onset, regular cannabis use and later depression, which persisted after controlling for potential confounding variables. There was little evidence of an increased risk of later cannabis use among people with depression and hence little support for the self-medication hypothesis. There have been a limited number of studies that have controlled for potential confounding variables in the association between heavy cannabis use and depression. These have found that the risk is much reduced by statistical control but a modest relationship remains.Conclusions  Heavy cannabis use and depression are associated and evidence from longitudinal studies suggests that heavy cannabis use may increase depressive symptoms among some users. It is still too early, however, to rule out the hypothesis that the association is due to common social, family and contextual factors that increase risks of both heavy cannabis use and depression. Longitudinal studies and studies of twins discordant for heavy cannabis use and depression are needed to rule out common causes. If the relationship is causal, then on current patterns of cannabis use in the most developed societies cannabis use makes, at most, a modest contribution to the population prevalence of depression.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00437.x
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The 12-month prevalence of substance use and ICD-10 substance use disorders in Australian adults: findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being (1999)
    Oxford, UK : Carfax Publishing, Taylor & Francis Ltd
    Addiction 94 (1999), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aims. To present the prevalence of substance use and ICD-10 substance use disorders in the adult Australian population using data from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being (NSMHWB). Design. A cross-sectional survey assessing substance use and ICD substance use disorders (harmful use and dependence). Setting and participants. A household survey of a nationally representative sample of 10 641 Australian adults (aged 18 years or older). Measurements. Trained survey interviewers administered a structured interview based on the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Findings. In the past 12 months 6.5% of the sample had an ICD-10 alcohol use disorder (95% CI: 6.2, 6.9), and 2.2% had another drug use disorder (95% CI: 2.0, 2.4). More males than females had substance use disorders: 9.5% of males (95% CI: 8.5, 10.5) and 3.6% of females (95% CI: 3.2, 4.0) met criteria for an alcohol use disorder, and 3.2% of males (95% CI: 2.8, 3.6) and 1.3% of females (95% CI: 0.9, 1.7) met criteria for another drug use disorder within the past 12 months. The prevalence of substance use disorders decreased with increasing age: 10.5% of respondents aged 18-34 years met criteria for an alcohol use disorder and 4.8% met criteria for a drug use disorder. The rates of these disorders among those aged 55 years or older were 1.8% and 0.1%, respectively. Substance use disorders were more prevalent among the unemployed, those who had never married and those who were Australian-born. Conclusions. The prevalence of substance use disorders in the Australian population is comparable to that in other English-speaking countries.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1999.9410154110.x
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Cannabis dependence in young adults: an Australian population study (2002)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 97 (2002), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Objectives The symptomatology of cannabis dependence remains ill-defined and its importance controversial. Compared with alcohol dependence, the symptom profile of cannabis dependence has received little attention. We aimed to (a) report cannabis use in a representative population of young adults, (b) examine cannabis dependence symptoms according to frequency in the dependence syndrome and (c) contrast the symptomatology of cannabis and alcohol syndromes.Methods 1601 young adults (mean age 20.7 years) from an Australian longitudinal cohort study (N = 2032) were surveyed in 1998. Regular substance users were assessed for DSM-IV cannabis and alcohol dependence. Prevalence estimates allowed for sampling variation and attrition.Results Fifty-nine per cent reported life-time use of cannabis, 17% used at least weekly and 7% (11% males, 4% females) met criteria for cannabis dependence. Symptom prevalence in dependent cannabis users was: persistent desire 91%; unintentional use 84%; withdrawal 74%; excessive time obtaining/using 74%; continued use despite health problems 63%; tolerance 21%; and social consequences 18%. The combination of withdrawal, persistent desire and unintentional use was reported by 57%. Dependent cannabis users reported compulsive and out-of-control use more frequently than dependent alcohol users, withdrawal similarly and tolerance considerably less often.Conclusions Cannabis use appears to be normative behaviour in young Australians. Progression beyond weekly use of cannabis carries a significant risk of dependence that should be considered in the public health response. The differing profiles of cannabis and alcohol dependence, particularly with regard to craving, draws attention to the need for further study of cannabis dependence as an important and distinct disorder in young adults.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00029.x
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