Note: Front Cover -- Model Answers in Organic Chemistry -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Introduction -- Acknowledgements -- Chapter 1. Structure and Isomerism -- NOTES -- (A) STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM -- (B) SPATIAL OR STEREOISOMERISM -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 2. Alkyl Halides and Related Compounds -- Chapter 3. Ether and Alcohols -- Chapter 4. Alcohols and Phenols -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 5. Aldehydes and Ketones -- NOTES -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 6. Carboxylic Acids -- NOTES -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 7. Esters -- Chapter 8. Nitriles -- NOTES -- Chapter 9. Amines -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 10. Diazonium Compounds -- NOTES -- Chapter 11. Benzene and Derivatives -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 12. General Reactions -- NOTES -- NOTES -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 13. Supplementary Questions -- STRUCTURE AND ISOMERISM -- ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS -- ALKYL HALIDES -- ETHERS -- ALCOHOLS AND PHENOLS -- ALDEHYDES AND KETONES -- CARBOXYLIC ACIDS -- ESTERS -- ACID HALIDES AND ANHYDRIDES -- AMINES -- DIAZONIUM COMPOUNDS -- BENZENE AND DERIVATIVES -- GENERAL REACTIONS -- Chapter 14. Syllabuses and Past Papers.

Note: Intro -- PREFACE -- NOTE TO THE READER -- Student and Instructor Resources Websites -- Instructor Resources -- CONTENTS -- DETAILED CONTENTS -- Chapter 1 The Scope of Modern Genetics -- 1.1 What Is Genetics? -- Genes are units of biological information -- 1.2 Genetics in Our Modern World -- The biological information in genes is read by the process called gene expression -- The expression of individual genes can be switched on and off -- Genes are also units of inheritance -- Children inherit genes from their parents -- The inheritance of genes underlies evolution -- Key concepts -- PART I GENES AS UNITS OF BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION -- Chapter 2 DNA -- 2.1 The structure of DNA -- Nucleotides are the basic units of a DNA molecule -- Nucleotides join together to make a polynucleotide -- In living cells, DNA is a double helix -- The double helix exists in several different forms -- Research Briefing 2.1 The discovery of the double helix -- 2.2 The molecular explanation of the biological role of DNA -- Biological information is contained in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule -- Complementary base pairing enables DNA molecules to replicate -- 2.3 How DNA is sequenced -- Clone libraries contain DNA fragments ready to be sequenced -- Each fragment in a clone library is individually sequenced -- Capillary gel electrophoresis is used to read the sequence -- Research Briefing 2.2 Genes are made of DNA -- Key Concepts -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- Chapter 3 Genes -- 3.1 The nature of the information contained in genes -- Genes are segments of DNA molecules -- Genes contain instructions for making RNA and protein molecules -- Protein synthesis is the key to expression of biological information -- The RNA molecules that are not translated into protein are also important. , 3.2 Variations in the information content of individual genes -- Genetic variants are called alleles -- There may be many variants of the same gene -- 3.3 Families of genes -- Multiple gene copies enable large amounts of RNA to be synthesized rapidly -- In some multigene families the genes are active at different stages in development -- Research Briefing 3.1 Studying the expression profile of a gene -- The globin families reveal how genes evolve -- Key concepts -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- Chapter 4 Transcription of DNA to RNA -- 4.1 Gene expression in different types of organism -- There are three major groups of organisms -- Gene expression is more than simply "DNA makes RNA makes protein" -- 4.2 Enzymes for making RNA -- The RNA polymerase of Escherichia coli comprises five subunits -- Eukaryotes possess more complex RNA polymerases -- 4.3 Recognition sequences for transcription initiation -- Bacterial RNA polymerases bind to promoter sequences -- Eukaryotic promoters are more complex -- Some eukaryotic genes have more than one promoter -- 4.4 Initiation of transcription in bacteria and eukaryotes -- The sigma subunit recognizes the bacterial promoter -- Formation of the RNA polymerase II initiation complex -- Initiation of transcription by RNA polymerases I and III -- 4.5 The elongation phase of transcription -- Bacterial transcripts are synthesized by the RNA polymerase core enzyme -- All eukaryotic mRNAs have a modified 5' end -- Some eukaryotic mRNAs take hours to synthesize -- 4.6 Termination of transcription -- Hairpin loops in the RNA are involved in termination of transcription in bacteria -- Eukaryotes use diverse mechanisms for termination of transcription -- Key concepts -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- Chapter 5 Types of RNA Molecule: Messenger RNA -- 5.1 Transcriptomes. , Transcriptomes are studied by microarray analysis -- Transcriptome analysis has been important in cancer studies -- Research Briefing 5.1 'Omes -- The composition of a transcriptome can change over time -- There are various pathways for nonspecific mRNA turnover -- Individual mRNAs in eukaryotes are degraded by the Dicer protein -- 5.2 Removal of introns from eukaryotic mRNAs -- Intron-exon boundaries are marked by special sequences -- The splicing pathway -- It is still not clear how errors are avoided during splicing -- Alternative splicing is common in many eukaryotes -- Trans-splicing links exons from different transcripts -- 5.3 Editing of mRNAs -- There are various types of RNA editing -- Key concepts -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- Chapter 6 Types of RNA Molecule: Noncoding RNA -- 6.1 Ribosomal RNA -- Ribosomes and their components were first studied by density gradient centrifugation -- Understanding the fine structure of the ribosome -- Electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography have revealed the three-dimensional structure of the ribosome -- 6.2 Transfer RNA -- All tRNAs have a similar structure -- 6.3 Processing of precursor rRNA and tRNA molecules -- Ribosomal RNAs are transcribed as long precursor molecules -- Transfer RNAs are also cut out of longer transcription units -- Transfer RNAs display a diverse range of chemical modifications -- Ribosomal RNAs are also modified, but less extensively -- 6.4 Removal of introns from pre-rRNAs and pre-tRNAs -- Some rRNA introns are enzymes -- Some eukaryotic pre-tRNAs contain introns -- Key concepts -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- Chapter 7 The Genetic Code -- 7.1 Protein structure -- Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds -- There are four levels of protein structure -- The amino acid sequence is the key to protein structure. , Amino acid sequence also determines protein function -- 7.2 The genetic code -- There is a colinear relationship between a gene and its protein -- Each codeword is a triplet of nucleotides -- The genetic code is degenerate and includes punctuation codons -- The genetic code is not universal -- Research Briefing 7.1 The genetic code -- 7.3 The role of tRNAs in protein synthesis -- Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases attach amino acids to tRNAs -- Unusual types of aminoacylation -- The mRNA sequence is read by base pairing between the codon and anticodon -- Key concepts -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- Chapter 8 Protein Synthesis -- 8.1 The role of the ribosome in protein synthesis -- Initiation in bacteria requires an internal ribosome binding site -- Research Briefing 8.1 Studying the proteome -- Initiation in eukaryotes is mediated by the cap structure and poly(A) tail -- Translation of a few eukaryotic mRNAs initiates without scanning -- Elongation of the polypeptide begins with formation of the first peptide bond -- Elongation continues until a termination codon is reached -- Termination requires special release factors -- 8.2 Post-translational processing of proteins -- Some proteins fold spontaneously in the test tube -- Inside cells, protein folding is aided by molecular chaperones -- Some proteins are chemically modified -- Some proteins are processed by proteolytic cleavage -- 8.3 Protein degradation -- There are various protein degradation pathways, but it is not clear how specific proteins are targeted -- Key concepts -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- Chapter 9 Control of Gene Expression -- 9.1 The importance of gene regulation -- Gene regulation enables bacteria to respond to changes in their environment -- Gene regulation in eukaryotes must be responsive to more sophisticated demands. , The underlying principles of gene regulation are the same in all organisms -- 9.2 Regulation of transcription initiation in bacteria -- Four genes are involved in lactose utilization by E. coli -- The regulatory gene codes for a repressor protein -- Glucose also regulates the lactose operon -- Operons are common features in prokaryotic genomes -- 9.3 Regulation of transcription initiation in eukaryotes -- RNA polymerase II promoters are controlled by a variety of regulatory sequences -- Research Briefing 9.1 Proteins that bind to DNA -- Signals from outside the cell must be transmitted to the nucleus in order to influence gene expression -- The RNA polymerase II initiation complex is activated via a mediator protein -- 9.4 Other strategies for regulating gene expression -- Modification of the bacterial RNA polymerase enables different sets of genes to be expressed -- Transcription termination signals are sometimes ignored -- Attenuation is a second control strategy targeting transcription termination -- Bacteria and eukaryotes are both able to regulate the initiation of translation -- Key concepts -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- PART II GENES AS UNITS OF INHERITANCE -- Chapter 10 DNA Replication -- 10.1 The overall pattern of DNA replication -- DNA replicates semiconservatively, but this causes topological problems -- DNA topoisomerases solve the topological problem -- Variations on the semiconservative theme -- Research Briefing 10.1 DNA replication is semiconservative -- 10.2 DNA polymerases -- DNA polymerases synthesize DNA but can also degrade it -- Bacteria and eukaryotes possess several types of DNA polymerase -- The limitations of DNA polymerase activity cause problems during replication -- Research Briefing 10.2 The polymerase chain reaction -- 10.3 DNA replication in bacteria. , E. coli has a single origin of replication.

Note: Front Cover -- Model Answers in Organic Chemistry -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Introduction -- Acknowledgements -- Chapter 1. Structure and isomerism -- NOTES -- (A) STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM -- (B) SPATIAL OR STEREOISOMERISM -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 2. Alky1 halides and related compounds -- NOTES -- Chapter 3. Ether and alcohols -- Chapter 4. Alcohols and phenols -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 5. Aldehydes and ketones -- NOTES -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 6. Carboxylic acids -- NOTES -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 7. Esters -- Chapter 8. Nitriles (cyanides) -- NOTES -- Chapter 9. Amines -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 10. Diazonium compounds -- NOTES -- Chapter 11. Benzene and derivatives -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 12. General reactions -- NOTES -- NOTES -- NOTES -- NOTES -- Chapter 13. Supplementary questions(in the above order) -- STRUCTURE AND ISOMERISM -- ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS -- ALKYL HALIDES -- ETHERS -- ALCOHOLS AND PHENOLS -- ALDEHYDES AND PHENOLS -- CARBOXYLIC ACIDS -- ESTERS -- ACID HALIDES AND ANHYDRIDES -- AMIDES -- AMINES -- DIAZONIUM COMPOUNDS -- BENZENE AND DERIVATIVES -- GENERAL REACTIONS -- Chapter 14. Syllabuses and past papers.