Note: Intro -- Editors' Biography -- Contents -- Chapter 1: Climate Change and Sponges: An Introduction -- 1.1 The Two Main Climate Change Factors: Impact of OW and OA -- 1.2 Marine Sponges: An Introduction -- 1.3 Direct Impacts of Climate Change on Sponges -- References -- Chapter 2: Lessons from the Past: Sponges and the Geological Record -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 The Sponge Fossil Record -- 2.2.1 Fossil Sponge Groups -- 2.2.1.1 Archaeocyaths -- 2.2.1.2 Heteractinids -- 2.2.1.3 Reticulosans -- 2.2.1.4 Protomonaxonids -- 2.2.1.5 Stromatoporoids -- 2.2.1.6 Inozoans -- 2.2.1.7 Chaetetids -- 2.2.1.8 Sphinctozoans -- 2.3 Climatic Changes in Geological Time -- 2.4 Sponge Diversity Patterns Through Time -- 2.4.1 Precambrian -- 2.4.2 Cambrian -- 2.4.3 Ordovician -- 2.4.4 Silurian -- 2.4.5 Devonian -- 2.4.6 Carboniferous -- 2.4.7 Permian -- 2.4.8 Triassic -- 2.4.9 Jurassic -- 2.4.10 Cretaceous -- 2.4.11 Palaeogene and Neogene -- 2.5 Sponge Diversity Through Mass Extinctions -- 2.6 Discussion -- 2.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3: Sponges as Proxies for Past Climate Change Events -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.1.1 δ13C as a Proxy for Historical Ocean CO2 Concentrations -- 3.1.2 Proxies for Historical Sea Temperature -- 3.1.2.1 δ18O -- 3.1.2.2 Trace Element to Calcium Ratios -- 3.1.3 Proxies for Historical Nutrient Concentrations -- 3.1.3.1 δ30Si -- 3.1.3.2 Trace Element to Silicon Ratios -- 3.2 Sponge Species Used for Paleoclimate Research -- 3.2.1 Hypercalcified Sponges -- 3.2.2 Desma-Bearing Demosponges -- 3.2.3 Hexactinellids -- 3.3 Estimating the Age and Growth of Sponges -- 3.3.1 In Situ Staining -- 3.3.2 δ13Carbon Dating -- 3.3.3 Lead Dating -- 3.3.4 Radiocarbon (Δ14C) Dating -- 3.3.5 234Uranium/230Thorium Dating -- 3.3.6 32Silicon Dating -- 3.3.7 Comparison of Dating Methods -- 3.4 Using Sponges to Reconstruct Past Environmental Conditions. , 3.4.1 Δ13C as a Proxy for Historical Ocean CO2 Concentrations -- 3.4.2 Proxies for Historical Sea Temperatures -- 3.4.2.1 δ18O as a Proxy for Historical Sea Temperatures -- 3.4.2.2 Trace Elements -- Strontium/Calcium -- Magnesium/Calcium -- 3.4.3 Proxies for Historical Nutrient Concentrations -- 3.4.3.1 δ30Si -- 3.4.3.2 Zinc/Silicon and Germanium/Silicon -- 3.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4: Molecular Responses of Sponges to Climate Change -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Gene Expression in Sponges -- 4.2.1 Response to Temperature -- 4.2.2 Changes in pH -- 4.2.3 Other Impacts -- 4.3 Genomics and Epigenetics -- 4.3.1 Genomics -- 4.3.2 Transcriptomics -- 4.3.3 Epigenetics -- 4.4 Conclusions -- References -- Glossary -- Chapter 5: Molecular and Functional Ecology of Sponges and Their Microbial Symbionts -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 The Partners: A Holobiont Perspective -- 5.2.1 Defining Terms: "Symbiosis" -- 5.2.2 Everything Is Everywhere: Probably More so for Sponges -- 5.3 Partner Interactions and Host-Symbiont Phenotypic Synergisms -- 5.3.1 Genomic Interactions Among Partners -- 5.3.2 Trophic Interactions Among Partners -- 5.3.3 Natural Products: Another Level of Host-Symbiont Integration -- 5.3.4 Establishing Residency: Phagotrophic Escape? -- 5.4 Community-Wide Consequences of Holobiont Behavior -- 5.4.1 Sponge Loops and Detrital Linkages -- 5.5 Structure of Microbial Communities -- 5.5.1 Neutral or Not: Networks and Rules of Community Assembly -- 5.5.2 Horizontal or Vertical, High or Low? -- 5.6 Sponge Symbioses in a Changing Ocean -- 5.6.1 Heat and pH -- 5.6.2 Disease -- 5.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6: Impacts of Short-Term Large-Scale Climatic Variation on Sponge Assemblages -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Climatic Oscillations -- 6.2.1 Recent ENSO Events -- 6.2.2 Environmental Changes During ENSO Events. , 6.3 Physiological Effects of Temperature Stress on Sponges -- 6.3.1 Respiration -- 6.3.2 Stress Proteins -- 6.3.3 Photosymbionts -- 6.3.4 Secondary Metabolites -- 6.4 Ecological Effects of Temperature Stress on Sponges -- 6.4.1 Reproduction -- 6.4.2 Feeding -- 6.4.3 Growth -- 6.5 Other Large-Scale Climatic Events -- 6.6 Impacts of Large-Scale Climatic Impacts of Sponges: Case Studies (Fig. 6.3) -- 6.6.1 Atlantic Coral Reefs: Brazil -- 6.6.2 East Pacific Ocean: Mexico -- 6.6.3 Indo-Pacific -- 6.6.4 Mediterranean (NW Basin) -- 6.6.5 Galapagos Islands -- 6.6.6 Caribbean -- 6.6.7 Polar and Temperate Environments -- 6.7 Cold-Water Event Impacts on Sponges -- 6.8 Secondary Impacts of Sponge Responses to Large-Scale Climatic Variation -- 6.9 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7: Bioeroding Sponges and the Future of Coral Reefs -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Materials and Methods -- 7.3 Bioeroding Sponges on Coral Reefs -- 7.3.1 Why Bioeroding Sponges Are Difficult to Study -- 7.3.2 Best Practice in Research on Bioeroding Sponges and Gaps in Knowledge -- 7.4 Biogeography of Bioeroding Sponges on Coral Reefs -- 7.5 The Role of Bioeroding Sponges in Reef Ecosystems -- 7.6 Bioeroding Sponges in Changing Environments -- 7.6.1 Case Example: Caribbean -- 7.6.2 Case Example: Red Sea -- 7.6.3 Case Example: Australian World Heritage Reefs (Great Barrier and Ningaloo Reef) -- 7.6.4 Case Example: Coral Triangle -- 7.6.5 Case Example: Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) -- 7.6.6 Case Example: Cold-Water Reefs -- 7.7 Conclusions -- Appendix A -- Appendix B -- Appendix C -- Appendix D -- Appendix E -- References -- Chapter 8: Nutrient Fluxes and Ecological Functions of Coral Reef Sponges in a Changing Ocean -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.1.1 Sponges as Key Engineers in Changing Coral Reef Ecosystems? -- 8.2 Carbon and Nitrogen Cycling on Reef Ecosystems Mediated by Sponges. , 8.2.1 Sponges and Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM) -- 8.2.2 The Sponge Loop Pathway -- 8.3 The Role of Sponges in Ecosystem Biogeochemistry (Controversies and Knowledge Gaps) -- 8.3.1 Critical Knowledge Gaps at the Organism Level -- 8.3.1.1 Sponge Functional Diversity in Processing of (Dissolved) Organic Matter -- 8.3.1.2 Sponge Loop Controversies: Sponge Growth, Cell Turnover, and Detritus Production -- 8.3.2 Knowledge Gaps at the Ecosystem Scale -- 8.3.2.1 Interactions Between Sponge Communities and Other Reef Members -- 8.3.2.2 Reef Communities and Carbon and Nitrogen Fluxes in Space and Time -- 8.3.2.3 Sponge Biomass Estimations on Coral Reefs -- 8.3.2.4 Caribbean, Red Sea, and Indo-Pacific: How Distinct Are These Geographical Regions in Terms of Sponge Ecological Function on Coral Reefs? -- 8.4 Sponges Drive and Modulate the Food Web of Reef Ecosystems in a Warming Ocean -- 8.4.1 Coral Reefs in a Changing World -- 8.4.2 A New Food Web Framework, Including Sponges as Key Ecosystem Drivers -- 8.4.3 The Battle for DOM: Sponge Loop Versus Microbial Loop -- 8.4.3.1 How Strong Is the Relationship Between DOC, Microbial Abundances, and Algae? -- 8.4.3.2 Sponge Loop and Microbial Loop: Friend or Foe in Processing DOM? -- 8.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 9: Sponge Disease and Climate Change -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Pathogens and Disease Aetiology -- 9.3 Environmental Stress and Disease Symptoms -- 9.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 10: Sponge Reefs of the British Columbia, Canada Coast: Impacts of Climate Change and Ocean Acidification -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Sponge Reefs and Changing Postglacial Climates -- 10.2.1 Hexactinellid Sponges and Sponge Reefs in Earth's History: Ancient Ocean Environments -- 10.2.2 Overview of Environmental Controls of Sponge Reef Distribution in the Upper Jurassic. , 10.3 Oceanographic and Contemporary Climate Trends -- 10.3.1 Shelf Circulation -- 10.3.2 Climate Changes on the BC North Coast and in Adjacent Inlets -- 10.3.3 Climate Changes on the BC South Coast (Strait of Georgia and Adjacent Inlets) -- 10.3.4 Other Climate Considerations -- 10.4 Biology of Glass Sponges and Climate Change: Vulnerability and Resilience -- 10.5 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 11: Future Research Directions and Gaps in Our Knowledge -- 11.1 Taxonomic and Geographical Spread of Studies -- 11.2 Mechanisms of Acclimation -- 11.3 Potential for Adaptation -- 11.4 Multiple Stressor Interactions -- 11.5 Ecosystem Impacts of Changing Sponge Abundance and Diversity -- 11.6 Geological Perspectives -- 11.7 Final Thoughts -- References.

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